:^IH  1  I 


o 


MILITARY  PREPAREDNESS 

AND 

THE  ENGINEER 

A  HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  CIVILIAN  ENGINEER. 
BY 

ERNEST  F.  ROBINSON,  Assoc.  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E. 

Captain,  New  York  Corps  of  Engineers^ 
National  Guard 


Second  Edition 
Second  Impression 

Illustrated 


McGRAW-HILL  BOOK  COMPANY,  Inc. 
239  WEST  39TH  STREET.    NEW  YORK 


LONDON;  HILL  PUBLISHING  CO.,  Ltd. 

6   &   8  BOUVERIE   ST.,    E.   C. 

1917 


Copyright,  1917 

By  Clark  Book  Co.,  Inc. 

New  York 


Chapter  I. 
Chapter  II. 


Chapter  III. 


Chapter  IV. 


Chapter  V. 


Chapter  VI. 


CONTENTS. 
Introductory. 

How  to  Obtain  a  Military  Training. 
The  Army. 
College  Training. 
Home  Study. 
Training  Camps. 

The  National  Guard. 
History. 

The  National  Guard  of  Today. 
Defects  of  the  National  Guard. 
Engineers  of  the  National  Guard. 
The  National  Defense  Act  of  1916. 

Military  Organization. 
Army  Organization. 

The  Staff. 

The  Line. 
Tactical  Organization. 

Military  Administration. 
Money  Accountability. 
Property  Accountability. 
Supply. 

Company  Books  and  Records. 
Correspondence . 

Engineer  Troops  in  the  Field. 
Duties. 

Scope  of  Services. 
Organization. 
Equipment. 
Detailed  Duties. 

On  the  March. 

The  Advance. 

The  Retreat. 

The  Attack. 

The  Defense. 

Sieges. 

In  Camp. 


.^80447 


viii 

CONTENTS 

Chapter  VII. 

Fire  Action. 

Rifle  Instruction. 

Outdoor  Firing. 

Effect  of  Small  Arms  Fire. 

Artillery  Fire. 

Chapter  VIII. 

Field  Fortifications. 

Location  of  Field  Works. 

Trace  of  Field  Works. 

Construction  of  Field  Works. 

Parapet. 

Revetments. 

Traverses. 

.  Firing  Trenches. 

Head  Cover. 

Overhead  Cover. 

Cover  Trenches. 

Communicating  Trenches. 

Machine  Gun  Emplacements. 

Gun  Cover. 

Concealment  of  Field  Works. 

Disguising. 

Dummy  Trenches. 

Concealment  from  Aerial  Observers. 

Chapter  IX. 

Obstacles. 

Barrier  Obstacles. 

Destroying  Obstacles. 

Flares  and  Alarm  Signals. 

Land  Mines. 

Chapter  X. 

Siege  Works. 

Sapping. 

Mining. 

Chapter  XI. 

Demolitions. 

High  Explosives. 

Combustibles  and  Detonants. 

How  Smokeless  Powder  is  Made. 

Picric  Acid. 

T.  N.  T. 

How  to  Stop  the  War. 

Chemical  Preparedness. 

CONTENTS 


Applications. 

Military  Explosives. 
Firing  Charges. 
Demolitions  by  Explosives. 

Chapter  XII.        Military  Bridges. 

Loads.  . 

Knots  and  Lashings. 
Improvised  Bridges. 
Pile  Bridges. 
Spar  Bridges. 
Floating  Bridges. 

Chapter  XIII.      Topographical  Sketching. 

How  Differing  from  Surveying  Methods. 

Instruments  Used. 

Methods. 

The  Plane  Table. 

The  Sketching  Case. 

The  Prismatic  Compass. 

The  Engineer  Note  Book. 

Contouring. 
Visibility. 

Map  Reproduction. 
Landscape  Sketching. 

Chapter  XIV.       Field  Fortifications — Addenda. 
Projectiles. 

Artillery  Projectiles. 

Aerial  Mines. 

Grenades. 
Trench  Details. 

Developments  due  to  close  contact. 

Fire  Trench  Cover. 

Loopholes. 

Traverses. 

Machine  Gun  Shelter. 

Communicating  Trenches. 

Revetments. 
Example  of  Trench  Construction. 
•    •  Trenches  built  by  22nd  N.  Y.  Engineers 

on  the  Mexican  Border. 

Successive  Lines  of  Defense. 


CONTENTS 


Supporting  Points. 

Location. 

Trace. 

Construction. 

Auxiliary  Structures. 
Chapter  XV.        Wire  Entanglements. 

General  Principles  Governing  Location. 

Types. 

Wire. 

Standards  or  Posts. 

Construction. 

Portable  Entanglements. 

Protection  of  Entanglements. 

Flare. 

Advanced  Sentry  Posts. 

Chapter  XVI.       Organization  of  Captured  Positions. 
Preliminary  Work. 
Sapping. 
Mining. 

Preparations  for  the  Assault. 
Passage  through  Obstacles. 
Parallel  d'Attaque. 
Preparation  of  Materials. 
Organization  After  Capture. 
Trenches. 
Villages. 
Woods. 
Mine  Craters. 
In  Enemy's  Line. 
In  Defending  Line. 
Chapter  XVII.     Engineers  in  Field  Service. 

Experience  in  Modern  Campaigns. 
Probable  Field  Duties  in  U.  S,  Service. 
Topography. 

Control  by  Automobile  Traverse. 
Mapping  by  Range-Finder. 
Roads. 
Bridges. 
Bridge  Reconnaissance. 
Bridge  Repairs. 
Strengthening  Bridges. 


CONTENTS 


Staff  Officers  of  Engineers. 
Entrenching 
Selection  of  Camp  Sites. 
Communications . 
Chapter  XVIII.  Sanitation. 

The  Selection  and  Laying  Out  of  the  Camp 

Site. 
Water  Supply. 
Sources. 
Pumping. 
Distribution. 

Water  Supply  in  Campaign. 
Drainage. 

Disposal  of  Refuse.  ' 

Animal  Wastes. 
Garbage. 
Rubbish. 
Camp  Diseases. 
Sanitation  in  the  Trenches. 
General  Sanitation. 
Personal  Hygiene 
Chapter  XIX.      Conclusion. 
Appendix  I.  List  of  Reading  on   Military  Subjects  for 

CiviUan  Engineers. 
Appendix  II.         Equipment  of  Engineer  Troops. 
Appendix  III.        Organization  of  Engineer  Troops. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

i^  PAGE 

Battery  of  Two  6-inch  Coast  Defense  Rifles,   Mounted 

Upon  Disappearing  Carriages Frontispiece 

Fac-simile  form  I.     Ration  Return 43, 44 

''       "        "    II.     Morning  Report 46,  47 

"       "        "  III.     Military  Communication 51 

Figure     1.     Bar  for  Instruction  in  the  Use  of  Sights 65 

2.  The  Hollafield  Rod 68 

3.  Target  Nomenclature 69 

4.  Wind  Nomenclature 70 

5.  Correction  Scales 72 

6.  Cone  of  Dispersion 73 

7.  Fire  from  High  Ground  to  Low  and  vice  versa . .  74 

8.  Danger  Space 75 

9.  Defilade 75 

10.  Burst  of  Shrapnel. 79 

11.  Trenches  at  MiUtary  and  Topographical  Crests  82 

12.  Trenches  at  Foot  of  Slope,  Military  Crest  and 

in  Rear  of  Crest 83 

13.  Squad  Trench 85 

14.  Company  Trench ........;...: 86 

15.  Flank  of  a  Trench 86 

16.  Typical  Parapet 87 

17.  Protection  from  Enfilade 90 

18.  Digging  in  under  Fire 90 

19.  Bullet-Proof  Parapet 91 

20.  Standing  Trench 92 

21.  Standing  Trench  with  Passage 92 

xiii 


xiv  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Figure  22.     Firing  Trench  without  Parapet 93 

23.  Recessed  Firing  Trench 94 

24.  Types  of  Loopholes 95 

25.  Loopholes  Corrected  for  Wide  Angle  of  Fire. . .     96 

26.  Individual  Overhead  Cover 96 

27.  Parapet  Shelter 97 

28.  Firing  Trench  with  Overhead  Cover 98 

29.  Cover  Trench 99 

30.  Machine  Gun  Emplacement 100 

31.  Machine  Gun  Emplacement  for  Cross-Fire 101 

32.  Obstacles 107 

33.  Wire  Entanglement 109 

34.  Land  Mine  and  Fougasse Ill 

35.  Land  Mines 112 

36.  Approach  by  Sapping 116 

37.  A  Sap '. ...   117 

38.  A  Mine 118 

39.  Mine  Timbering 119 

40.  A  Countermine 120 

41.  Placing  Charge  in  Spar  Bridge 135 

42.  The  Explosion 136 

43.  Bridge  Destroyed 136 

44.  Knots 139 

45.  Knots 141 

46.  Knots 143 

47.  Knots 145 

48.  Knots 147 

49.  Lashings 149 

50.  Ground  Tackle 151 

51.  Floating  Pile-driver 153 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xv 

PAGE 

Figure  52.    Trestle  for  Spar  Bridge 154 

53.  Erection  of  Spar  Bridge 155 

54.  Single  Lock  Bridge,  Trestles  Locked 156 

55.  Double  Lock  and  Single  Sling  Bridges 157 

56.  Double  Lock  Bridge  Completed 158 

57.  Lashed  Spar  Trestles 160 

58.  Loaded  Ponton  Carriage,  Reserve  Train 162 

59.  Birago  Trestle 164 

60.  Barrel  Raft  for  Floating  Bridge 166 

61.  Timber  Raft  for  Floating  Bridge 167 

62.  Floating  Bridge  by  Successive  Bays 168 

63.  Floating  Bridge  by  Parts 170 

64.  Floating  Bridge  by  Rafts 171 

65.  Draw  in  Floating  Bridge 173 

66.  Construction  of  Bridge,  Light  Equipage 174 

67.  Construction  of  Bridge,  Reserve  Equipage ....   174 

68.  Reconnaissance  Instruments 181 

69.  Engineer  Note-Book 186 

70.  Engineer  Note-Book 187 

71.  Map  Distances * 188 

72.  Topographical  Symbols 189 

73.  Topographical  Symbols 190 

74.  Road  Sketch 191 

75.  Landscape  Sketch 197 

76.  Shelter  Trench  Close  in  Rear  of  Fire  Trench.. .  204 

77.  Spur  Fire  Trenches 204 

78.  Splinter  Proof 205 

79.  Trench  Shelter 206 

80.  Dugout 306 

81.  Sortie  Steps  in  Face  of  Trench 208 


rvi  LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Figure  82.     Leaving  Trench  by  Sortie  Steps 209 

83.  Trench  with  Covered  Passageway 210 

84.  Continuous  Loopholed  Trench,  Double  Line  of 

Fire 211 

85.  Trench  for  Fire  Through  and  Over  Parapet.  .  .  212 

86.  Inclosed  Trench 212 

87.  Hopper  Loopholes 213 

88.  Loopholes  and  Shields 215 

89.  Machine  Gun  Emplacement,  Overhead  Cover..  217 

90.  Trenches  Built  by  New  York  Engineers 222 

91.  Firing  Trench  with  Elbow  Rest 223 

92.  Cover  Afforded  by  Trench  with  Elbow  Rest. . .  224 

93.  Cover  Afforded  by  Omitting  Elbow  Rest 224 

94.  Dressing  Station 226 

95.  Open  Observation  Station 227 

96.  Dead  Angle  at  Corner  of  Trench 231 

97.  Double  Apron  Entanglement 237 

98.  Double  Fence  Entanglement 238 

99.  Special  Entanglement  Wire 239 

100.  Special  Entanglement  Posts 240 

101.  Automatic  Flare 244 

102.  Guides  for  Night  Firing 246 

103.  Consolidation  of  Captured  Trenches 253 

104.  Occupation  of  Front  Lip  of  Mine  Crater 255 

105.  Occupation  of  Rear  Lip  of  Mine  Crater 256 

106.  Automobile  Traverse  Notes 263 

107.  Section  of  Mexican  Border,  Mapped  by  22nd 

N.  Y.  Engineers 264 

108.  Topography  by  Self-Contained  Range-Finder. .   266 

109.  Slope  Reduction  Diagram 267 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

PAGE 

FigurellO.     Range  Card. 267 

111.  Moment  Diagram,  Bridge  Decking 273 

112.  Shear  Diagram,  Bridge  Decking 274 

113.  Moment  Diagram,  Bridge  Stringers 276 

114.  Shear  Diagram,  Bridge  Stringers 278 

115.  Stresses  in  Decking,  Concentrated  Loads 278 

116.  Stresses  in  Stringers,  Concentrated  Loads. ....  279 

117.  Bridge  Inspection  Report 281 

118.  Bridge  Inspection  Report 282 

119.  Repairing  Bridge  Decking  without  New  Lumber  283 

120.  Repairing  Bridge  Approaches 284 

121.  Strengthening  Deck  of  Bridge 285 

122.  Strengthening  Stringers  of  Bridge 287 

123.  Camp  of  a  Regiment  of  Infantry 293 

124.  Stone  Pit  Kitchen  Crematory 307 

125.  Brick  Incinerator 309 

126.  Incinerator  with  Induced  Draft 310 

127.  Incinerator  with  Water  Heating  Pan 310 

128.  Camp  Incinerator 312 

129.  Headquarters  Tool  Wagon,  Escort  Type 334 

130.  Spring  Tool  Wagon 338 

131.  Company  Tool  Wagon 342 

132.  Company  Tool  Wagon,  Open,  Showing  Equip- 

ment    347 


INTRODUCTION" 

As  a  civilian  engineer  who  has  in  his  spare 
moments  devoted  considerable  study  to  matters 
military  during  the  past  fifteen  years,  I  cordially 
recommend  this  volume  to  members  of  the  engineer- 
ing profession  who  are  desirous  of  rendering  the 
service  for  which  their  technical  training  has  laid 
the  foundation. 

Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  M.  E. 
Colonel,  22nd  New  York  Engineers. 


PREFACE   TO   SECOND  EDITION. 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  in  no  way  changed 
by  revision.  Even  with  the  country  at  war,  there 
are  many  engineers  who  wish  to  serve  but  have 
vague  ideas  as  to  the  part  they  may  best  play. 

To  those  who  are  equipped  for  active  service  with 
the  field  forces  the  Author  desires  particularly  to 
appeal.  It  is  his  aim  to  present  to  such  inen  the 
salient  points  of  military  engineering  in  the  language 
of  the  civilian  engineer. 

The  new  material  is  compiled  from  many  different 
sources.  Much  relating  to  field  fortifications  was 
obtained  directly  from  participants  in  the  European 
struggle,  and  is  descriptive  of  types  in  actual  use  in 
this  war.  Acknowledgment  is  made  to  the  TJ.  8, 
Infantry  Journal  for  valuable  information  and  sug- 
gestions contained  in  a  series  of  articles  on  field  en- 
trenchments. 

Acknowledgment  is  also  made  to  Professional 
Memoirs^  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army,  for  data 
obtained  from  articles  upon  the  "Consolidation  of 
Captured  Points/'  and  '^Wire  Entanglements/'  and 
to  a  paper  by  Capt.  Burgess,  Corps  of  Engineers, 
U.  S.  Army,  Engineer  School,  1908,  upon  the  duties 
of  Engineer  troops.  Special  indebtedness  is  ac- 
knowledged to  Corporal  W.  W.  Daiker,  Company  F, 
22nd  N.   Y.   Engineers,  for  his  excellent   drawings. 

As  this  is  written  the  Author's  regiment  again  en- 
ters the  Federal  service.  Many  civilian  engineers 
are  probably  taking  similar  obligations  in  the  various 
National  Guard  units  throughout  the  country.     The 


xxii  PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION 

Author  takes  this  opportunity  to  express  his  con- 
fidence that  these  same  engineers,  who  have  con- 
tributed so  largely  to  the  greatness  and  prosperity  of 
the  United  States  in  time  of  peace,  will  prove  equal  to 
all  calls  upon  their  skill  in  time  of  war. 

New  York,  July  16,  1917. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  place  before  the  En- 
gineers of  America  as  accurate  an  idea  as  possible  of 
the  opportunities  and  limitations  that  will  confront  the 
Civilian  Engineer  in  the  event  of  war,  to  show  him  what 
he  can  do  to  assist  in  preparedness  against  invasion  and 
how  he  must  go  about  the  matter. 

Modem  War  is  largely  an  engineering  problem,  and 
for  its  successful  conduct  there  must  be  at  the  service 
of  the  country  from  the  first  a  very  large  number  of 
engineers  with  more  than  an  indefinite  notion  that  they 
are  willing  to  fight,  and  die  if  need  be,  for  their  coun- 
try. Many,  many  more  will  fight  and  fewer  by  far  will 
die,  if  the  engineering  profession  at  large  can  readily 
obtain  a  proper  conception  of  the  duties,  the  responsi- 
bilities, and  the  active  functions  of  the  individual  en- 
gineer, in  a  few  weeks  immediately  following  his  call  to 
the  colors. 

For  this  reason  the  Author  addressed  several  large 
meetings  of  Engineers  belonging  to  the  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  the  Harvard  Engineering 
Society  of  New  York,  etc.,  and  what  he  was  able  to  pre- 
sent on  the  platform  and  the  screen  was  so  enthusias- 
tically received  that  he  was  very  ready  to  acquiesce  in 
the  invitation  of  the  Publishers  to  give  the  material'  to 
the  profession  at  large  by  broad  publication. 

The  material  of  the  lectures  has  been  carefully  re- 
vised and  very  materially  enlarged.  The  book,  how- 
ever, is  not  a  service  manual,  of  which  several,  admir- 
ably prepared  by  the  War  Department,  are  available. 
It  attempts  only  to  fulfill  the  purpose  originally  indi- 
cated. If  this  attempt  be  successful,  the  Author's  obli- 
gations and  his  hopes  will  have  been  more  than  met. 

A  large  part  of  the  technical  matter  is  based  upon  the 


xxiv  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

Engineer  Field  Manual,  U.  S.  Army,  and  a  number  of 
cuts  have  also  been  reproduced  from  the  same  source. 
Chapter  VI,  * '  Engineer  Troops  in  the  Field, ' '  is  taken 
almost  entirely  from  an  article  in  the  Official  Bulletin, 
General  Staff,  Vol.  1,  No.  4,  Dec,  1914.  The  matter  was 
so  important,  as  giving  specifically  and  in  detail  the 
duties  of  the  Engineers  under  all  conditions,  that  near- 
ly half  the  original  article  is  here  reproduced. 

The  matter  in  Chapter  V,  on  rifle  instruction,  illus- 
trates the  methods  devised  and  used  by  the  Author  in 
his  own  company. 

Acknowledgment  is  made  to  Prof.  Whitaker,  of  the 
Department  of  Engineering  Chemistry,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, for  permission  to  reprint  his  excellent  article 
on  ''High  Explosives." 

New  York.  February  28, 1916. 


CHAPTER  I. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

After  two  years  of  agitation  for  an  adequate  mili- 
tary preparedness,  with  war  becoming  more  and  more 
inevitable,  tbe  United  States  at  length  find  them- 
selves drawn  into  the  world  conflict  with  apparently 
little  or  nothing  accomplished  in  the  way  of  material 
preparedness. 

It  is  fortunate  indeed  that  this  war  finds  us  with 
our  enemy  already  engaged  to  the  hilt,  separated 
from  us  by  three  thousand  miles  of  ocean,  and  with 
the  fleets  of  an  allied  power  intervening.  Otherwise 
we  might  even  now  be  preparing  desperately  to  meet 
invasion,  our  navy  dispersed  by  superior  forces  and 
the  transports  of  an  expeditionary  force  approach- 
ing our  shores. 

Such  fortune  comes  to  few  nations  and  few  times 
to  any  one  of  them.  The  respite  thus  gained  should 
be  accepted  thankfully  and  utilized  to  the  utmost. 
We  have  time  indeed,  but  not  time  to  waste.  Our 
wealth  placed  at  the  disposal  of  our  new  allies  may 
greatly  increase  their  effectiveness,  but  it  cannot  in 
the  end  buy  for  us  immunity  from  the  duty  of  at 
least  preparing  to  take  a  more  active  part  in  the 
struggle.  "The  instinct  of  self-pre^rvation  alone 
should  dictate  the  wisdom  of  such  a  course.  The 
conclusion  of  a  separate  peace  by  any  one  of  the 
allied  powers  would  change  materially  the  aspect  of 
the  war,  and  might  eventually  place  the  United  States 
in  a  position  of  great  danger. 

Action,  therefore,  is  urgently  demanded,  but  not 
action  of  a  hasty  or  ill-advised  character.     The  ^^On 

1 


2  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

to  Richmond^ ^  spirit  which  drove  an  unprepared  vol- 
unteer army  to  disaster  at  Bull  Run  has  no  place  in 
our  present  program.  Although  much  remains  to 
be  accomplished  in  the  way  of  military  preparedness, 
there  is  yet  time  for  preparedness  of  the  right  sort, 
based  upon  a  due  appreciation  of  our  needs  and  of 
the  resources  at  hand.  Those  who  clamor  for  im- 
mediate action,  therefore,  should  remember  that  for 
the  first  time  in  its  history  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  proposes  to  take  counsel  of  the  mistakes  of 
previous  wars  and  to  profit  by  them.  For  the  first 
time  we  shall  enter  a  war  with  our  preparations 
based  upon  a  sound  military  system,  one  which  is 
elastic  and  capable  of  being  expanded  sufficiently  to 
bring  into  play,  if  necessary,  the  entire  military 
strength  of  the  nation.  From  this  system  may  de- 
velop what  we  have  always  lacked,  a  permanent  mili- 
tary policy  which  shall  guarantee  our  future  safety. 

This  much,  then,  may  we  credit  to  the  campaign 
for  preparedness.  '  Though  our  actual  gain  in  men 
and  munitions  be  small,  the  educational  effect  has 
been  great,  and  were  this  the  only  effect  of  the  cam- 
paign, it  might  be  consideried  highly  successful. 

The  problem  before  us,  therefore,  lies  in  the  sup- 
ply of  large  quantities  of  men  and  munitions,  and  the 
training  of  these  men  for  the  work  that  lies  before 
them.  The  manufacture  of  munitions  we  may  safely 
leave  to  those  who  are  specialists  at  such  work,  and 
the  matter  of  imising  and  organizing  our  armies  may 
be  delegated  to  Congress  and  the  War  Department. 
In  the  interval  which  must  elapse  before  such  a 
force  can  be  raised,  however,  much  may  be  done  by 
the  individual  in  preparing  himself  for  the  part  which 
he  is  to  play. 

This  discussion  shall  deal,  therefore,  with  a  very 
small  part  of  the  general  subject  of  military  pre- 
paredness— the  part  of  the  engineer  as  an  individual. 


INTRODUCTORY  3 

If  each  engineer  sees  to  it  that  he  personally  is  fully 
prepared  to  take  his  place  as  an  officer  or  non-com- 
missioned officer  of  engineer  troops,  then  may  we  be 
said  to  have  effected  a  great  step  towards  prepared- 
ness. This  war  is  one  of  engineers,  and  upon  the 
efficient  leadership  of  our  engineer  troops  will  de- 
pend in  large  measure  our  ultimate  success. 

The  work  of  the  Engineers  is  divided  into  two  great 
classes,  that  in  the  Zone  of  the  Advance  at  the  front, 
and  that  in  the  Zone  of  the  Line  of  Communications. 
In  the  latter  the  works  are  of  a  more  deliberate  and 
permanent  character,  directly  akin  to  civil  works. 
Skilled  civilian  labor  would  be  largely  used,  and  civil- 
ian Engineers  could  be  taken  directly  from  their  daily 
duties  to  supervise  the  construction  of  highways,  rail- 
ways, bridges,  and  the  more  deliberate  defensive  works 
for  their  protection.  In  this  work  the  civil  engineer 
can  find  a  large  sphere  of  usefulness,  the  duties  differ- 
ing little  from  those  of  his  ordinary  practice,  except 
that  they  are  directed  by  officers  towards  military  ends. 
These  men  would  not  necessarily  be  commissioned,  in 
fact,  many  of  those  best  qualified  would  be  beyond  the 
age  for  commissions  in  the  grades  corresponding  to  the 
work  which  they  would  do.  Let  it  be  understood, 
therefore,  that  the  writer  considers  such  service  of  the 
highest  importance,  and  that  a  Technical  Reserve  of 
members  of  the  profession  at  large,  immediately  avail- 
able for  work  of  this  character  upon  the  outbreak  of 
hostilities  would  be  of  great  value  to  the  country.  In 
the  discussion  which  follows,  therefore,  the  former 
class  of  engineering  work  only  will  be  considered,  that 
of  the  Zone  of  the  Advance,  where  conditions  are 
totally  different. 

There  is  work  in  plenty  of  both  kinds  to  be  done,  and 
one  may  render  equally  good  service  in  either  class. 
However,  if  all  choose  to  work  in  the  rear,  the  troops  at 
the  front  will  be  seriously  handicapped.    Service  along 


4  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

the  Line  of  Communications  falls  naturally  to  men  of 
long  experience  and  ripe  judgment.  That  at  the  front 
requires  men  with  physical  endurance,  initiative  and 
enthusiasm,  qualities  ordinarily  possessed  in  good 
measure  by  the  younger  generation  of  engineers.  It  is 
to  these  men,  therefore,  that  we  must  look  for  engineer 
officers  in  our  next  war.  The  average  engineer  faces 
much  preparation  before  he  is  qualified  to  render 
effective  service  of  this  character. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  science  of  Engineer- 
ing had  its  beginning  when  the  Missing  Link  first 
used  a  stone  to  crack  a  cocoanut.  This  is  probably  an 
error  in  so  far  that  the  stone  was  used  to  crack,  not  the 
cocoanut,  but  his  neighbor's  skull,  since  it  is  a  pretty 
well  established  fact  that  the  first  engineers  were  mili- 
tary engineers.  As  time  went  on  and  civilization  de- 
veloped, engineers  were  in  time  of  peace  used  upon 
public  works,  and  it  is  only  in  modern  times  that  the 
profession  of  engineering  has  become  a  distinct  calling. 
The  latter  is  now  so  diversified  in  all  its  branches  that 
one  adopting  engineering  as  a  profession  must  be  a 
specialist.  It  is  beyond  the  capacity  of  any  man  to  be 
qualified  in  all  the  subjects  that  are  grouped  under  the 
term  engineering. 

A  locating  engineer  could  not  be  expected  to  take 
charge  of  the  electrification  of  his  own  railway,  and  a 
bridge  erector  would  hardly  make  a  success  as  master 
mechanic  of  the  same  road ;  yet  each  is  an  engineer,  and 
a  railroad  engineer  at  that.  Similarly,  a  successful 
highway  engineer  would  not  be  chosen  to  design  a  great 
bridge,  nor  would  an  irrigation  engineer  step  into  a 
position  in  charge  of  a  shield  tunneling  job,  and  yet 
each  of  these  positions  calls  for  a  civil  engineer. 

The  military  engineer  makes  use  of  all  branches  of 
engineering  science  but  often  in  a  different  way  and 
with  an  entirely  different  view  point  than  his  civilian 
confrere.    His  work  is  destructive  as  often  as  construe- 


INTRODUCTORY  6 

tive,  his  materials  are  scarce  and  of  the  crudest,  and 
often  utterly  unfitted  for  his  purpose.  Plant  is  almost 
unknown,  labor  is  plentiful  but  often  inefficient,  time  is 
all-important  and  there  is  constant  and  serious  inter- 
ference by  the  enemy  with  each  step  taken.  Every- 
thing must  be  done  with  a  military  purpose  and  from 
the  view  point  of  the  military  man  and  until  the  en- 
gineer acquires  this  point  of  view  he  cannot  make  a  suc- 
cess in  the  field. 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the  military  en- 
gineer is  a  soldier  before  he  is  an  engineer.  He  com- 
mands troops  who  must  be  prepared  to  fight  as  infan- 
try to  protect  tjiemselves  or  their  work.  He  must  there- 
fore be  versed  in  the  drill  regulations  and  the  tactical 
considerations  governing  the  use  of  that  arm  of  the 
service.  He  must  administer  the  affairs  of  his  com- 
mand and  look  after  its  training,  housing,  transporta- 
tion and  sanitation.  He  must  understand  thoroughly 
the  plain  business  of  ** soldiering''  with  its  many  de-. 
tails  before  he  begins  to  think  of  using  his  men  as 
engineers. 

An  officer  in  the  field  cannot  act  in  a  mere  consulting 
capacity  upon  purely  technical  matters.  He  must  be 
prepared  to  put  his  shoulder  to  the  wheel  and  take  his 
share  of  the  enormous  amount  of  routine  and  other 
necessary  but  uninteresting  work  with  which  the  time 
of  the  military  man  is  filled.  Nor  is  there  a  place  at  the 
front  for  a  specialist.  The  engineer  officer  must  be 
qualified  to  conduct  a  reconnaissance,  locate  trenches, 
supervise  their  construction  and  the  placing  of  ob- 
stacles, direct  siege  operations,  drive  a  mine  or  sap, 
build  roads,  railroads  or  bridges,  or  use  explosives,  en- 
tirely upon  his  own  responsibility. 

Let  us  consider  for  a  moment  that  a  number  of  prac- 
tical engineers  have  been  commissioned  in  a  volunteer 
reserve  and  that,  war  having  been  declared,  one  of 
them  receives  an  order  to  this  effect : 


6  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

*  ^  1.  Captain  A.  is  detailed  for  duty  and  assi^ed  to 
the  command  of  Company  H,  Second  Engineers,  U.  S. 
Volunteers,  mobilized  and  stationed  at  Camp  Wilson, 
N.J. 

2.  Captain  A.  will  make  immediate  requisition  for 
arms,  equipment  and  engineer  property  and  for  trans- 
portation to  Portville  for  embarkation  with  expedi- 
tionary forces. ' ' 

Query:  What  does  he  requisition,  of  whom  is  it  re- 
quisitioned, and  how  much  transportation  does  he  re- 
quest to  move  his  company  at  war  strength  and  fully 
equipped  ? 

Again,  suppose  him  arrived  in  camp,  »his  officers  and 
men,  volunteers  like  himself,  just  reported.  The  First 
Sergeant  says,  **  Captain,  the  cooks  have  nothing  to 
cook.  No  rations  have  been  sent  over  by  the  commis- 
sary."  The  Captain  hurries  to  his  organization  supply 
officer  and  complains  of  this  manifest  attempt  to  starve 
his  mjen.  He  is  told,  *  *  Issue  call  was  sounded  at  ten  A. 
M.  and  your  Quartermaster  Sergeant  was  not  present. 
Furthermore,  we  have  received  no  ration  return  from 
you  nor  a  morning  report  of  your  strength. ' ' 

Query :  What  is  a  ration  retuta  or  a  morning  report, 
how  do  you  make  them  out,  and  to  whom  do  you  send 
them? 

And  again,  at  the  front,  the  brigade  commander 
sends  an  urgent  call  to  division  headquarters  for  an 
engineer  officer  to  assist  in  preparing  a  position  for 
defense.  Captain  A.  is  favorably  known  to  the  chief 
engineer  of  the  division  as  a  capable  engineer  and  one 
who  has  studied  diligently  since  being  commissioned,  so 
he  is  sent. 

Knowing  from  his  field  manual  that  a  good  defensive 
position  should  afford  a  clear  field  of  fire  to  the  front, 
that  it  should  provide  concealment  and  good  communi- 
cations to  the  rear,  with  its  flanks  resting  upon  impas- 
sable objects,  Captain  A.  selects  a  position  forward  of 


INTRODUCTORY  7 

the  crest  of  a  slope,  lays  out  complete  trenches  with 
overhead  cover,  sods  them  over,  places  entanglements 
at  the  foot  of  the  slope,  and  carries  the  line  from  the 
river  bluff  on  the  left  to  contact  with  the  lines  of  an- 
other brigade  on  the  right.  The  attack  is  then  awaited 
in  confidence. 

But  when  the  men  have  dug  themselves  in,  a  swell  in 
the  ground  completely  blocks  off  from  view  the  foot  of 
the  slope  and  considerable  space  in  front  and  rear,  and 
the  entanglements,  so  plainly  visible  to  Captain  A.  on 
his  horse,  are  in  the  middle  of  a  dead  zone,  to  which  the 
enemy  advance  by  rushes,  line  after  line,  and  destroy 
the  entanglements  at  their  leisure.  Spurred  on  by 
their  officers  the  men  leave  their  elaborate  trenches, 
advance  to  where  the  enemy  is  visible  and  open  fire 
from  a  prone  position,  only  to  be  driven  back  by 
shrapnel  from  the  enemy's  artillery,  firing  over  the 
heads  of  his  own  troops.  They  are  followed  up  the  hill 
by  masses  of  the  enemy 's  infantry,  who  rush  the  trench 
before  it  can  be  reoccupied,  drive  the  defenders  back 
in  headlong  flight,  turn  the  flanks  of  the  adjacent  brig- 
ade, and  the  day  is  lost. 

These  few  instances  are  not  exaggerations.  Those 
who  served  in  the  Spanish  War  can  multiply  occur- 
rences of  the  first  two  kinds  and  many  an  officer  of 
more  experience  than  Captain  A.  has  been  guilty  of 
the  same  neglect,  of  locating  trenches  without  placing 
his  eye  at  the  level  of  the  men  who  will  occupy  them. 

In  recent  articles  of  the  technical  press  it  has  been 
urged  that  practical  engineers,  contractors'  men,  con- 
struction foremen,  etc.,  were  as  well  or  better  qualified 
to  perform  certain  classes  of  work  than  regular  en- 
gineer troops  and  could  be  used  for  this  work  without 
further  training.  This  is  admitted,  but  can  they  out- 
side their  special  lines  perform  all  the  duties  that  fall 
to  the  engineers,  including  fighting,  as  well  as  troops 
possessing  a  more  general  training?     These  men  have 


8  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE   ENGINEER 

made  the  United  States  famous  wherever  engineering 
work  is  done  and  their  knowledge  and  experience  will 
be  a  tower  of  strength  to  the  army.  But  consider  how 
much  more  effective  they' would  be  if  each  were  trained 
as  a  soldier  as  well  as  an  engineer;  if  he  possessed  a 
familiarity  with  the  different  technical  duties  of  the 
military  engineer  in  addition  to  his  own  specialized 
knowledge. 

Let  us  imagine  that  all  members  of  the  engineering 
profession  who  are  of  military  age  and  physically  fit 
have  studied  and  attended  instruction  camps,  lectures, 
etc.,  until  they  are  really  fitted  to  command  engineer 
troops.  Does  this  knowledge  on  their  part  tend  to  les- 
sen the  confusion  and  complications  incident  to  their 
recruiting,  mobilization,  mustering  into  service,  com- 
missioning and  assignment,  taking  command  and  weld- 
ing their  organizations  into  efficient  units  ?  Yet  this 
must  be  done  before  they  can  become  efficient  officers. 
If  they  simply  enlist  and  serve  in  the  ranks  their  train- 
ing and  talents  are  in  a  measure  lost  by  not  being  fully 
developed,  and  we  still  have  the  work  of  bringing  them 
into  the  service. 

There  are  many  who  await  Congressional  action 
before  deciding  what  they  individually  will  do.  It 
is  certain  that  any  measures  adopted  will  take 
months  to  carry  out,  and  this  time  can  very  profit- 
ably be  devoted  to  individual  preparedness.  For 
those  who  wish  to  improve  this  time,  there  is  the 
National  Guard,  which  is  a  going  concern^  and  which 
is  already  at  work  upon  the  task  of  training  officers 
and  men.  That  the  National  Guard  has  its  faults  is 
admitted,  but  so  has  the  Army :  that  those  of  the  Na- 
tional Guard  are  the  more  serious  cannot  be  denied, 
but  it  must  be  conceded  that  the  result  in  each  case 
is  due  to  conscientious  effort,  and  is  probably  the 
best  that  can  be  done  under  the  circumstances.  More- 
over, the  faults  of  the  National  Guard  are  due  not 


INTRODUCTORY  9 

SO  much  to  inside  as  to  outside  causes,  not  the  least 
of  which  is  the  attitude  of  the  general  public  to- 
wards the  Guard.  We  could  not  have  full  companies 
if  public  sentiment  was  opposed  to  enlistment,  nor 
full  attendance  at  maneuver  and  instruction  camps 
if  employers  would  not  let  their  men  off,  and  we 
cannot  now  have  the  most  efficient  organizations  if 
the  men  who  can  make  them  so  hold  back  from  en- 
listing. 

But  in  spite  of  its  drawbacks  the  National  Guard 
can  be  made  a  powerful  factor  in  an  emergency. 
T4iese  men  are  organized,  they  are  under  arms,  they 
are  equipped  exactly  like  the  Army,  and  receive  in- 
struction of  the  same  character  out  of  the  same  text- 
books. The  Guard  today,  faulty  as  it  is,  still  forms 
the  most  practicable,  and  in  fact  the  only  practicable 
method  we  have  of  promptly  reinforcing  the  Regular 
Army  in  time  of  national  need. 

So,  therefore,  if  the  engineer  expects  to  volunteer 
or  to  qualify  for  a  commission  in  the  Reserve  Corps, 
he  may,  instead  of  marking  time  until  all  the  legis- 
lation and  plans  are  complete,  improve  the  time  by 
preparing  himself  for  the  position  which  he  may  de- 
sire to  hold.  When  these  forces  are  organized,  in 
far  greater  numbers  than  any  which  we  have  called 
to  the  colors  since  the  Civil  War,  the  National  Guard 
will  be  largely  drawn  upon  for  officers  and  non-com- 
missioned officers,  and  one  can  certainly  lose  noth- 
ing by  advance  preparation. 


CHAPTER  II. 
HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A  MILITARY  TRAINING. 

Considerable  space  has  been  devoted  to  showing 
that  the  civilian  engineer  who  wishes  to  become  a 
potential  military  engineer  should  first  obtain  a  mili- 
tary training.  It  is  therefore  essential  that  there 
should  be  outlined  some  practical  manner  in  which 
this  training  may  be  obtained. 

There  are  a  number  of  methods  which  have  been 
suggested,  each  of  which  has  its  advocates,  and  each 
of  which  has  its  good  and  bad  points.  Those  which 
have  been  most  urged  are :  the  Army,  college  training, 
home  study,  instruction  camps,  and  the  National 
Guard. 

The  Army.  Universal  training  in  the  Army  is  ob- 
jectionable to  the  people  on  account  of  its  cost,  be- 
cause many  men  would  be  withdrawn  yearly  from 
productive  pursuits,  and  because  of  the  fear  of  all 
that  suggests  a  military  form  of  government.  Its 
many  advantages  over  the  volunteer  system  in  time 
of  war,  however,  and  its  absolute  fairness  to  all,  in 
addition  to  the  resulting  physical  benefit  to  the  youth 
of  the  country,  argue  strongly  for  its  adoption.  Once 
accepted  in  the  exigencies  of  the  present  war,  it  will 
undoubtedly  be  retained  as  a  part  of  our  permanent 
military  policy.  This  system,  however,  scarcely  lies 
within  the  scope  of  the  present  discussion,  which 
aims  simply  to  point  out  the  manner  of  utilizing 
most  effectively  the  facilities  that  we  now  have. 

For  the  practicing  engineer  to  serve  in  the 
Army  in  time  of  peace,  in  order  to  obtain  the  mili- 
tary training  necessary  to  qualify  himself  for  a 
war  commission,  is  not  advisable.  The  soldier 
who  does  his  full  duty,  and  learns  thoroughly  all 

10 


HOW   TO  OBTAIN   A   MILITARY   TRAINING  11 

the  details  pertaining  to  his  position,  does  not  qualify 
himself  to  become  an  officer.  Even  those  men  who 
graduate  from  the  ranks  into  a  commission  must  pur- 
sue a  course  of  study  entirely  outside  their  ordinary 
duties  as  soldiers.  An  engineer  who  enlists  in  the 
Army,  therefore,  expecting  after  a  term  of  service  to 
enter  an  officers'  reserve,  will  find  himself  confronted 
by  examination  questions  upon  matters  of  which  he 
heard  nothing  as  a  soldier,  no  matter  how  conscien- 
tiously he  applied  himself. 

The  duties  of  a  soldier  are  one  thing,  those  of  an  offi- 
cer are  another,  and  the  difference  is  great.  They  do 
not  merge,  and  proficiency  in  the  lower  grade  is  no 
guarantee  of  qualification  for  the  higher. 

College  Training  affords  a  splendid  opportunity  if 
properly  conducted.  Nearly  all  the  large  engineering 
schools  offer  facilities  for  military  training,  and  in  the 
Land  Grant  Colleges,  i.  e.,  those  which  received  grants 
of  public  lands  for  the  maintenance  of  their  Agricul- 
tural Schools,  military  training  is  compulsory.  Most 
schools  of  this  character,  where  the  students  drill  a 
certain  number  of  periods  each  week,  and  the  work  is 
supervised  by  an  officer  of  the  army  detailed  for  that 
purpose,  are  rated  as  Class  ^'B"  by  the  War  Depart- 
ment. The  students  are  under  no  military  control  out- 
side the  drill  hour,  and  the  instruction  is  about  on  a 
par  with  the  infantry  drill  of  the  better  National  Guard 
organizations. 

From  six  years  military  experience  in  a  typical  uni- 
versity of  this  character,  and  from  considerable  in- 
formation gained  by  conversations  with  students  of 
similar  institutions  the  writer  can  advisedly  say  that 
he  does  not  believe  that  the  instruction,  as  now  carried 
out,  offers  the  proper  training  to  qualify  young  men 
for  field  service  as  officers  of  engineers. 

The  drill  comprises  infantry  tactics  and  close  order 
formations.    There  is  very  little  rifle  practice,  and  no 


12  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

real  instnietion  in  the  principles  of  musketry.  In  win- 
ter, when  the  weather  prevents  outdoor  drill,  there  is 
indoor  instruction,  mostly  in  the  Infantry  Drill  Regu- 
lations. A  few  advanced  students  may  receive  lessons 
in  Minor  Tactics  and  the  Art  of  War,  but  these  are 
limited  to  the  cadet  officers,  who  have  elected  to  serve 
for  a  longer  period  than  the  university  regulations 
require.  The  percentage  of  the  total  force  which  re- 
ceives other  than  elementary  infantry  instruction  is 
therefore  very  small.  Finally,  field  service  is  entirely 
lacking  in  every  case  of  which  the  writer  has  received 
information. 

There  are  a  number  of  military  institutions  in  the 
United  States  which  are  rated  as  Class  *^A''  by  the 
War  Department,  and  in  which  the  military  instruc- 
tion is  of  the  highest  order,  ranking  second  only  to  the 
Military  Academy  itself.  However,  these  schools  are 
mostly  in  the  preparatory  class,  and  are  famous  prin- 
cipally on  account  of  their  military  character.  None 
of  them  is  numbered  among  our  leading  technical 
institutions.  Even  at  West  Point  the  engineering  in- 
struction is  very  limited  in  its  scope,  and  officers  grad- 
uating into  the  Engineers  must  take  a  post-graduate 
course  in  engineering  at  the  Engineer  School  at 
Washington  Barracks,  D.  C. 

It  seems  evident,  therefore,  that  if  our  engineers  are 
to  receive  an  adequate  military  education  along  with 
their  engineering  course,  the  scheme  of  military  in- 
struction must  be  considerably  modified,  probably 
along  the  following  lines : 

1.  Its  scope  must  be  extended,  and  military  in- 
struction required  throughout  the  undergraduate 
course.  As  much  attention  should  be  paid  to  work  in 
the  class-room  as  to  that  on  the  drill  ground,  and  a 
regular  curriculum  should  be  followed,  embracing 
supply,   organization,   administration,   minor  tactics, 


HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A  MILITARY  TRAINING  13 

field  service  regulations,  field  engineering,  and  military 
history, 

2.  Less  time  must  be  allowed  for  infantry  drill,  and 
the  portion  which  is  so  occupied  must  be  devoted  part- 
ly to  extended  order  drills,  not  on  the  level  campus, 
but  on  terrain  approximating  field  conditions. 

3.  The  drills,  outside  of  infantry  tactics,  should 
include  military  topography  and  sketching,  in  which 
the  engineer  is  usually  wofully  deficient,  rifle  practice, 
and  the  underlying  principles  of  rifle  instruction. 

4.  Finally,  the  student  should  be  required  to  attend 
one  of  the  college  men's  instruction  camps  held  by  the 
War  Department.  Students  from  the  technical  schools 
could  be  accommodated  in  engineer  camps,  directed 
by  engineer  officers  of  the  Army  and  assisted  by  engi- 
neer troops,  similar  to  the  instruction  camps  of  the 
militia  engineers.  Such  field  service  would  be  produc-. 
tive  of  a  much  higher  efficiency  than  local  encamp- 
ments, mi^anaged  entirely  by  the  university  authorities. 

A  man  completing  such  a  course  should  be  fully 
qualified  to  lead  engineer  troops  in  the  field,  but  the 
mere  fact  of  his  having  taken  the  instruction  is  not 
conclusive  evidence  of  his  qualification.  Many  men 
walk  through  a  technical  course,  receiving  a  diploma  at 
the  end,  without  being  in  the  least  qualified  to  practice 
engineering.  It  is  right  and  proper;  therefore,  that 
the  War  Department  should  require  a  qualifying  test 
before  admitting  a  graduate  under  the  system  to  an 
officers'  reserve. 

Nor  does  the  responsibility  of  the  War  Department 
cease  here.  All  this  training  is  in  a  fair  way  to  be  lost 
to  the  country  if  the  proper  office  does  not  keep  in 
touch  with  the  graduate,  send  him  orders  and  litera- 
ture pertaining  to  his  branch  of  the  service,  and  encour- 
age him  to  attend  further  instruction  camps  or  to  join 
the  National  Guard  and  pass  his  training  on  to  others. 
Above  all,  there  should  be  required  of  him,  not  only  his 


14  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

changes  of  address,  but  a  periodical  report,  upon  a 
printed  form,  which  will  insure  a  complete  record 
at  all  times  as  to  his  health,  whereabouts  and  any 
other  data  that  would  affect  his  availability  for 
prompt  service.  In  turn,  the  reservist  must  be  noti- 
fied of  the  cadre  or  skeleton  organization  to  which  he 
is  assigned,  and  its  mobilization  point,  to  prevent 
confusion  upon  reporting  for  duty. 

Furthermore,  in  order  to  prevent  deterioration, 
and  to  insure  his  keeping  up  with  military  progress 
and  developments,  he  should  be  required  to  report 
at  certain  intervals  to  be  examined  for  a  higher 
grade.  Upon  failure  to  pass  this  examination,  his 
connection  with  the  reserve  should  cease.  Judging 
from  the  busy  life  of  the  average  engineer  several 
years  out  of  college,  how  many  would  remain  on  the 
reserve  list  under  these  conditions  until  they  reached, 
say,  the  grade  of  captain  ?  And  yet  these  conditions, 
severe  as  they  seem,  are  absolutely  essential  if  we 
desire  an  officers'  reserve  capable  of  rendering 
prompt  and  effective  service  when  called  upon. 

This,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  is  the  fatal  de- 
fect in  the  system  of  college  training.  It  is  a  simple 
matter  to  train  these  men.  There  is  a  precedent  for 
each  step  outlined,  and  it  can  all  be  accomplished 
without  further  legislation.  The  Government  re- 
quires military  training  in  return  for  Federal  aid  to 
the  agricultural  schools;  then  let  it  specify  the  char- 
acter of  this  training.  The  War  Department  has  es- 
tablished college  men 's  camps  of  instruction ;  then  let 
the  technical  men  be  accommodated  in  an  engineer- 
ing camp.  Candidates  have  been  examined  and  com- 
missioned in  the  Officers'  Eeserve  Corps;  then  let 
the  War  Department  keep  in  touch  with  these  men, 
see  that  they  do  not  backslide  and  arrange  for  a  sys- 
tem of  promotion  by  examination  as  in  the  Army. 

Unless  such  a  system  is  thoroughly  carried  out,  the 


HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A  MILITARY  TRAINING  15 

whole  system  fails.  We  train  the  men,  lose  track  of 
them,  and  never  know  who  or  how  many  can  be  counted 
upon  in  an  emergency.  Furthermore,  a  scheme  of 
skeleton  units  is  a  prime  requisite,  if  we  would  avoid 
the  confusion  of  organization  after  the  beginning  of 
hostilities. 

Yet,  with  all  this  accomplished,  the  training,  the 
close  contact,  and  the  organization,  ready  for  imme- 
diate response  to  a  mobilization  order,  the  whole  struc- 
ture still  rests  upon  the  self-discipline  and  sense  of 
responsibility  of  the  individual  engineer,  who,  busy 
with  making  a  living  and  a  career  for  himself,  must 
study  privately,  keep  up  with  military  progress,  for 
the  military  art  makes  long  strides  even  in  times  of 
peace,  and  prepare  for  promotion  examinations,  merely 
upon  the  chance  that,  sometime,  his  services  may  be 
required. 

Moreover,  while  an  improved  system  of  college  train- 
ing may  be  of  great  benefit  in  preparing  future  gener- 
ations of  engineers  for  volunteer  commissions,  it  is  not 
available  for  those  who  have  already  completed  their 
college  courses  and  are  now  engaged  in  active  practice. 
Many  of  these  are  anxious  to  serve  and,  properly 
trained,  could  render  very  effective  service. 

Home  Study,  amplified  by  lectures,  is  the  favorite 
plan  of  many  engineers  in  this  country.  The  causes 
of  this  preference  are  easily  seen : 

1.  There  is  no  compulsion  to  take  instruction  except 
as  desired  and  as  perfectly  convenient  to  the  indi- 
vidual. 

2.  There  is  no  supervision  over  his  work  and  no  test 
to  pass,  so  he  is  not  bothered  with  monotonous  details, 
and  can  study  only  what  interests  him. 

3.  There  are  no  responsibilities,  no  formations  to 
attend,  no  duties  to  perform,  and  no  restraint  upon 
his  liberty. 

These  very  reasons  are  sufficient  to  condemn  the 


16  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

method  so  far  as  any  practical  benefit  is  concerned.  A 
man  will  study  only  when  it  pleases  him  to  do  so  and 
then  only  that  which  interests  him,  and  even  a  course  of 
reading  would  find  few  to  follow  it  conscientiously  to 
the  end.  There  are,  furthermore,  many  things  con- 
nected with  military  service  that  cannot  be  learned 
by  study  alone,  as  will  be  seen  later. 

And  how  are  such  men  to  be  made  available  for  ser- 
vice ?  They  apply  for  commissions  upon  the  outbreak 
of  hostilities,  and  find  that  they  have  no  standing  with 
the  War  Department.  They  cannot  submit  a  record 
of  any  connection  with  a  reputable  military  organiza- 
tion, nor  even  a  certificate  from  an  examining  board. 
To  examine  and  classify  them  at  this  late  hour  would 
be  impracticable,  and  the  War  Department  would 
hesitate  long  before  commissioning  a  man  with  abso- 
lutely no  military  experience.  The  probable  reply  to 
such  application  would  be,  ^^  Gentlemen,  we  have  a 
place  for  you — in  the  ranks." 

Training  Camps  are  a  developnxent  of  the  college 
men's  camps  which  originated  in  1913.  The  few  that 
have  been  held  so  far  have  been  eminently  successful 
in  imparting  to  a  number  of  men  the  rudiments  of  field 
training  by  means  of  an  intensive  method,  and  have 
aroused  great  enthusiasm  among  those  attending. 

In  these  camps  the  men  are  by  degrees  accustomed  to 
the  long  marches  and  the  full  pack.  The  time  at  their 
disposal,  usually  thirty  days,  easily  permits  of  this, 
and  the  results  are  quite  different  from  those  obtained 
by  the  average  militia  organizations  on  maneuvers  of 
perhaps  a  week's  duration,  where  the  rule  is  a  full 
pack  and  usually  a  march  of  fair  length  from  the  very 
beginning. 

The  most  famous  camp,  that  of  the  '*  First  Training 
Eegiment,"  at  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.,  attracted  a  large 
number  of  men  prominent  in  various  walks  of  life,  and 
the  course  of  training  was  carefully  laid  out  to  illus- 


HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A  MILITARY  TRAINING  17 

trate  the  problems  which  will  confront  troops  in  the 
field.  The  success  of  the  camp  was  largely  due  to  the 
type  of  men  attending  and  the  intelligence  displayed 
in  grasping  the  principles  involved  as  well  as  to  the 
tact  and  hard  work  of  the  officer  instructors. 

After  the  day's  drill  it  was  customary  to  hold  lec- 
tures upon  military  subjects,  mostly  explanatory  of 
the  drills  and  maneuvers  executed  during  the  day. 

The  attitude  of  the  daily  press  was  probably  the  one 
objectionable  feature  of  the  encampment.  The  camp 
was  hailed  as  the  last  word  in  military  education, 
grinding  out  fully  trained  officers  in  thirty  days'  in- 
tensive instruction.  That  this  attitude  was  not  shared 
by  the  men  themselves  nor  contemplated  by  the  army 
officers  who  were  their  instructors  is  easily  seen  from 
their  writings  and  public  utterances.  The  above  men- 
tioned press  items,  however,  might  be  productive  of 
much  misunderstanding  on  the  part  of  prospective 
participants. 

It  is  conceded  that  a  man  of  natural  ability,  accus- 
tomed to  handling  men,  might  learn  enough  of  field 
conditions  at  such  a  camp  to  carry  him  successfully 
through  a  campaign  as  a  com,pany  officer  of  volunteers. 
But  unless  he  has  had  previous  military  training,  it 
is  certain  that  he  must  take  the  field  lacking  in  some  ' 
of  the  knowledge  that  an  officer  should  have,  and  if  the 
exigencies  of  the  campaign  do  not  call  for  exercise  of 
this  knowledge  at  some  critical  moment,  he  is  fortunate. 
For  a  man  who  has  undergone  military  training  in 
college,  and  has  had  experience  as  a  cadet  officer,  the 
training  camp  would  furnish  the  necessary  field  service 
to  complete  his  military  education  and  fit  him  for  a 
volunteer  commission. 

That  field  service  alone,  however,  of  limited  duration 
and  unsupported  by  previous  training,  can  fully  pre- 
pare a  man  to  lead  troops  in  modern  warfare,  is  a  pro- 


18  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

position  not  to  be  seriously  considered.  The  following 
quotations  may  throw  some  light  upon  the  subject. 

The  first  is  from  a  circular  issued  by  those  in  charge 
of  the  training  camps  for  the  summer  of  1916,  and 
shows  their  view-point  as  to  the  scope  of  the  instruction 
given  : 

*^ '  The  aim  is  to  give  men  of  average  physique  four 
or  five  weeks  a  year  of  intensive  military  instruction  un- 
der officers  of  the  Eegular  Army,  so  that  at  the  end  of 
that  time  men  of  no  previous  military  experience  will,  at 
least,  have  learned  the  rudiments  of  military  organiza- 
tion and  discipline  and  use  of  the  military  rifle,  and 
become  somewhat  familiar  with  the  equipment,  feed- 
ing and  sanitary  care  of  an  army  in  the  field,  and  the 
handling  and  control  of  men  in  maneuvers. ' ' 

The  second  is  from  an  anonymous  article  reviewed 
in  the  International  Military  Digest  for  February, 
1916,  and  presents  the  views  of  a  member  of  the  First 
Training  Regiment  at  Plattsburg. 

*^Note.  This  is  written  from  the  standpoint  of  a 
*  rear-rank  private'  at  the  recent  camp  of  instruction 
at  Plattsburg,  N.  Y. 

*  Our  first  reflections  concerned  organization.  Here 
we  were,  thirteen  hundred  eager,  unskilled  men  from 
.  civil  life,  parodying  what  happens  when  our  country 
goes  to  war.  A  miracle  of  transformation  was  wrought 
upon  us.  In  two  days  we  had  ceased  to  be  a  mob.  In  a 
week  we  had  got  by  the  first  appalling  fatigue.  In  a 
fortnight  we  had  developed  out  of  nothing  our  own 
noncomm^issioned  officers.  Three  weeks  had  made  an 
effective  if  ragged  regiment  of  us. 

**  'It  needed  little  reflection  to  see  that  the  health, 
order,  and  spirit  of  Plattsburg  could  never  be  im- 
provised. These  depend  upon  long  founded  ex- 
perience and  intelligence.  I  imagined  what  would  be- 
fall us  if  all  the  cooks,  doctors,  officers,  and  regular 

♦Italics   are  tbe  author's. 


HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A  MILITARY  TRAINING  19 

privates  were  suddenly  withdrawn  and  the  *  Business 
Men's  Regiment'  left  to  its  own  devices.  Even  in 
time  of  peace  the  result  would  be  calamitous. 

^  *  '  A  more  ominous  reflection  came  on  the  first  day 
of  combat  tactics  in  open  order.  Suppose  this  were 
not  the  end  of  the  drill,  after  two  weeks  of  amateur 
soldiering,  but  the  beginning  of  a  battle,  after  two 
weeks  of  real  war.  Who  would  teach  us  to  shoot  twice 
a  minute  and  to  roll  over  in  changing  position  when  to 
rise  were  death  ?  Not  our  present  captain  and  lieu- 
tenant, not  our  smiling  and  steely-eyed  regular  ser- 
geant, but  just  willing  duffers  like  ourselves,  fighting 
by  day  and  learning  how  to  fight  out  of  'Infantry 
Drill  Regulations'  at  night.  As  things  go  in  modern 
war,  should  the  regular  army  have  to  face  a  powerful 
foe,  there  would  in  a  month  be  no  regular  army.  The 
funded  military  intelligence  of  the  nation  would  be 
shot  to  pieces  in  just  about  four  weeks.  The  men  who 
could  make  soldiers  out  of  the  million  men,  who  we  are 
assured  would  spring  to  arms,  would  be  themselves 
in  soldiers '  graves  or  lying  unburied. 

' '  '  To  imagine  ourselves  in  any  sense  protected  be- 
cause the  American  is  a  natural  fighting  man  is  the  last 
folly.      • 

*'  'After  a  month  we  could  march,  camp,  shoot,  take 
care  of  ourselves,  maneuver  a  few  hours  a  day.  I  think 
that  perhaps  a  quarter  of  us  had  hardened  enough  to 
do  much  more  than  required  of  the  regiment,  but  most 
of  us  were  still  far  from  fit  to  stand  the  physical 
strain  of  actual  warfare.  Here  is  a  whole  side  of  prep- 
aration for  war  about  which  there  is  the  wildest  mis- 
conception. People  cannot  realize  that  a  stalwart  un- 
trained citizen  is  no  more  physically  fit  to  fight  than  a 
sturdy  untrained  freshman  is  fit  to  step  into  a  football 
match.'  " 

That  field  training  alone  is  not  the  best  system  of 
developing  officers  is  recognized  by  the  War  Depart- 


20  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

ment  in  the  course  of  instruction  followed  at  West 
Point.  Instead  of  living  in  camp  for  a  year,  under- 
going intensive  training,  and  then  receiving  their 
commissions  in  the  Army,  the  cadets  are  given  a 
thorough  theoretical  course  along  with  their  prac- 
tical work. 

The  soldier's  instruction  comprises  rifle  shooting, 
physical  drill,  marching,  camping,  sanitation,  care  of 
self  and  equipment,  drills  in  the  tactical  duties  of  his 
branch  of  the  service,  and  discipline.  There  is  nothing 
in  this  list  that  cannot  be  much  better  taught  in  the 
field  than  in  barracks,  and  field  training  is  therefore 
ideal  for  the  enlisted  man,  but  an  officer  must  know 
more. 

The  prospective  officer  studies  the  Art  of  War,  so 
that,  instead  of  blindly  leading  his  troops  as  he  is  told, 
he  has  some  intelligent  idea  of  the  purpose  of  it  all.  He 
studies  Military  History,  for  there  is  no  better  prepa- 
ration for  conducting  campaigns  than  by  the  study  of 
past  operations.  Napoleon  was  a  great  believer  in  the 
efficacy  of  study  as  preliminary  to  leadership,  and  is 
on  record  as  having  shown  marked  preference  for  a 
man  known  to  be  a  deep  student  of  military  science 
over  one  of  much  experience  but  little  military  educa- 
tion. 

The  student  officer  must  also  learn  the  theory  of  his 
practical  work.  A  soldier  may  know  the  mechanical 
processes  of  making  a  road  sketch,  but  the  officer  must 
know  the  principles  of  surveying  involved,  in  order  to 
become  an  instructor ;  the  soldier  may  be  able  to  con- 
struct a  satisfactory  firing  trench,  but  some  officer 
must  decide  where  that  trench  is  to  be  located,  and  the 
type  to  be  constructed,  in  order  to  best  attain  the  de- 
sired result ;  a  sergeant  may  erect  a  spar  bridge,  using 
timber  of  the  correct  size  to  carry  the  load  safely,  but 
is  was  an  officer  who  first  computed  the  sizes  of  timber 
necessary  for  the  various  spans,  and  put  them  in  the 


HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A  MILITARY  TRAINING  21 

Field  Manual  where  they  became  accessible  to  the  ser- 
geant. 

In  short,  the  officer  must  acquire  a  considerable  theo- 
retical training  and,  while  his  education  is  not  com- 
plete without  field  service,  neither  is  the  latter  sufficient 
in  itself.  It  is  told  of  von  Moltke  that  he  valued  ex- 
ceedingly an  old  black-board  in  his  quarters.  Upon 
this  board  he  worked  out  problems  in  tactics,  strategy 
and  map  maneuvers;  laying  out  hypothetical  situa- 
tions, considering  the  conditions  and  location  of  his 
own  forces,  sim^ilar  data  regarding  the  enemy,  prepar- 
ing a  plan  of  action,  and  writing  out  the  necessary 
orders  to  his  subordinates  to  carry  out  the  plan 
adopted.  To  this  training  he  largely  attributed  the 
great  success  of  his  campaigns  in  the  Franco-Prussian 
War. 

Finally,  the  whole  question  of  volunteer  officers  re- 
duces itself  to  one  of  expediency.  If  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  fully  trained  officers  are  not  available,  then  we 
must  make  use  of  the  best  material  we  have,  and  in 
such  a  case  many  graduates  of  the  training  camps 
would  undoubtedly  receive  commissions.  "While  not 
possessing  all  the  qualifications  that  could  be  desired, 
these  men  would  be  vastly  preferable  to  the  political 
appointees  who  officered  many  of  the  volunteers  in  the 
Spanish  War. 

To  the  prospective  training  camp  recruit,  therefore, 
the  following  advice  may  well  be  given. 

1.  If  you  have  an  opportunity  of  attending  this 
camp,  do  so,  and  go  again  each  summ(er  if  the  camps 
are  held,  for  there  is  something  you  can  learn  at  each 
tour  of  duty. 

2.  Do  not  imagine  that  your  service  entitles  you  to 
a  commission,  but  work  as  if  it  were  certain  that  you 
would  command  troops  in  our  next  war,  and  make  it  a 
point  to  learn  all  that  you  can  regarding  an  officer's 
job. 


22  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE  ENGINEER 

3.  Supplement  your  field  training  by  home  study. 

4.  If  you  can  possibly  do  so,  follow  up  your  train- 
ing by  joining  some  National  Guard  organization. 

It  has  been  urged  that  National  Guard  officers,  as 
a  class,  regard  the  system  of  Training  Camps  as  a  sort 
of  unfair  competition  to  their  efforts  at  building  up 
their  own  organizations,  by  offering  more  attractive 
service  and  precedence  in  the  matter  of  volunteer  rank, 
without  the  disadvantages  and  inconveniences  of  ser- 
vice in  the  National  Guard.  The  following  letter  from 
the  Commanding  Officer,  National  Guard  New  York, 
to  the  Officer  in  Charge  of  the  Military  Training 
Camps,  published  in  the  descriptive  circular  of  these 
camps,  is  self-explanatory: 

'^HEADQUARTERS  N.  G.  N.  Y. 

New  York,  January  17,  1916. 

**The  question  is  sometimes  asked  whether  there  is 
any  conflict  of  interest  or  of  effort  between  the  organ- 
izations of  the  National  Guard  and  the  training  camps 
for  college  and  business  men.  This  question  may  not 
only  be  answered  emphatically  in  the  negative,  but 
may  be  affirmatively  stated  with  equal  emphasis  that 
the  training  regiments  have  been  of  benefit  to  the 
National  Guard,  of  this  State  at  least.  A  very  consider- 
able number  of  men  of  the  Plattsburg  training  regi- 
ment have  joined  organizations  of  the  New  York 
Division,  some  as  commissioned  officers  and  some  as 
enlisted  men. 

**  Wholly  aside  from  the  foregoing  there  is  another 
aspect  of  the  training  camps  which  should  not  be  lost 
sight  of.  There  are  in  some  localities  men  who  desire 
military  training,  but  who  are  so  circumstanced  that 
they  cannot  make  available  for  the  purpose  the  amount 
of  time  demanded  by  service  in  the  National  Guard. 
Some  of  the  men  in  this  class  find  it  possible  to  de- 
vote thirty   days  for  training   during  the   summer 


HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A  MILITARY  TRAINING  23 

months.  The  training  camps  furnish  the  needed  op- 
portunity for  men  in  this  class.  These  camps  are  there- 
fore performing'  a  service  to  the  nation  in  respect  to 
such  men,  which  it  is  not  possible  for  the  National 
Guard  to  perform. 

*^I  have  no  hesitation  in  urging  upon  officers  of  the 
National  Guard  throughout  the  State  their  fullest  co- 
operation in  support  of  the  excellent  movement  repre- 
sented by  the  training  camps.  In  New  York  State 
facilities  have  been  provided  in  some  of  the  armories 
for  detachments  of  men  of  the  training  camps  who  de- 
sire to  continue  the  work  begun  at  Plattsburg. 

(Signed)     JOHN  F.  O^RYAN, 
Major  General,  N.  G.  N.  Y/' 

At  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  there  were  listed 
five  ways  in  which  a  military  training  might  be  ob- 
tained, four  of  which  have  been  discussed.  That  re- 
maining, the  National  Guard,  will  be  treated  of  in  the 
following  chapter. 


III. 

THE  NATIONAL  GUARD. 

The  land  forces  of  the  United  States  as  at  present 
constituted  (February,  1916)  consist  of: 

1.  The  Eegular  Army. 

2.  The  Organized  Militia  (National  Guard). 

3.  The  Volunteers. 

History,  The  militia  comprises  all  able-bodied  male 
citizens  between  the  ages  of  18  and  45,  and  under  the 
Constitution  Congress  has  the  authority  to  call  forth 
the  militia  for  the  purpose  of  executing  the  laws,  sup- 
pressing insurrection  and  repelling  invasion,  also  to 
provide  for  organizing,  arming  and  disciplining  the 
militia  and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be 
employed  in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  reserving 
to  the  states  the  appointment  of  officers  and  the  author- 
ity ojf  training  the  militia  according  to  the  discipline 
prescribed  by  Congress. 

It  was  originally  required  that  the  militia  be  mus- 
tered once  a  year,  after  which  there  would  be  a  drill 
by  some  former  officer  of  the  Army  or  by  some  officer 
elected  or  appointed  from  among  the  militiamen.  The 
evolutions  executed  on  these  '* Training  Days''  were 
fearful  and  wonderful  to  behold,  and  yet  these  were 
the  only  forces  that  stood  between  the  United  States 
and  absolute  annihilation,  there  being  practically  no 
Regular  Army  at  this  time. 

The  action  of  the  militia  has  been  most  disgraceful 
in  every  war  in  which  they  have  been  engaged.  All 
during  the  Revolution  they  were  sent  to  the  army  in 
large  numbers  by  the  various  states,  and  promptly  de- 

24 


THE   NATIONAL   GUARD  25 

serted  when  harvest  time  came  or  when  they  tired  of 
the  service.  In  the  War  of  1812  a  force  of  2,500,  large- 
ly militia,  abandoned  the  National  Capital  to  a  force  of 
1500  British,  after  a  loss  of  8  killed  and  11  wounded ! 
Short  term  volunteers  have  invariably  insisted  upon 
leaving  for  home  immediately  upon  the  expiration  of 
their  term  of  service,  regardless  of  the  military  neces- 
sities of  the  moment.  The  cause  of  these  defections  is 
apparent — lack  of  training,  and  it  is  due  to  these  very 
glaring  faults  of  the  system  as  it  then  existed  that  the 
militia  worked  out  its  own  remedy. 

There  were  in  those  days  men  who  had  military 
foresight,  just  as  there  are  at  present,  and  these  men, 
many  of  whom  had  served  in  the  Colonial  or  Indian 
Wars,  began,  as  a  protest  against  the  burlesque  drills 
of  the  annual  '  *  Training  Days, ' '  the  drilling  of  inde- 
pendent companies  and  troops  of  men  from  their  own 
neighborhoods.  These  organizations,  which  had  no 
connection  with  the  War  Department,  were  maintained 
at  their  own  expense,  and  were  soon  able  to  completely 
outshine  the  militia  in  their  annual  drills.  Some  of 
the  smaller  units  were  eventually  combined  into  bat- 
talions and  regiments,  uniforms  were  adopted,  and  the 
National  Guards  as  they  called  themselves,  became  the 
beginning  of  a  disciplined  force.    ' 

The  War  Department,  recognizing  the  increased 
efficiency  of  these  troops  over  the  raw  militia,  eventual- 
ly admitted  them  into  the  scheme  of  the  nation 's  land 
defenses,  though  at  first  with  little  supervision  and 
practically  no  support.  The  states,  also,  encouraged 
the  movement  as  tending  toward  a  better  training  of 
their  militia,  and  early  acquired  supervision  over  the 
National  Guard.  There  was  no  authority  for  Federal 
control  except  as  a  portion  of  the  militia,  so  the  term 
Organized  Militia  was  applied  to  those  forces  which 
were  organized  and  under  arms,  to  distinguished  them 
from  the  great  mass  of  the  Unorganized  Militia, 


26  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

Even  then,  however,  the  National  Guard  was  not 
highly  esteemed  as  a  national  force.  Its  functions 
were  largely  social ;  and  its  tours  of  field  service  were 
characterized  by  much  pomp  and  display.  Effective 
use  of  the  rifle  in  executing  the  Manual  of  Arms  took 
precedence  over  its  use  as  a  fire-arm,  and  the  drill  was 
largely  confined  to  close-order  infantry  formations.  In 
the  scheme  of  defense  it  was  contemplated  to  call  out 
the  Organized  Militia  only  after  the  Volunteers  had 
been  recruited  and  mustered  into  service.  In  fact,  it 
was  looked  upon  as  a  home  guard,  not  intended  for 
active  service.  • 

The  Spanish- American  War  gave  the  National  Guard 
its  real  awakening.  Many  organizations  which  desired 
to  volunteer  bodily  found  that  they  could  not  be  mus- 
tered intact  into  the  service  of  the  United  States,  but 
must  volunteer  individually.  There  was  no  machinery 
for  taking  over  the  various  regiments  and  companies 
as  organizations,  so  that  practically  the. same  confusion 
resulted  as  in  the  enlistment  of  volunteers,  each  man 
being  required  to  enlist  individually.  In  the  field  it 
was  found  that  armory  drills  had  not  fitted  the  men  for 
the  hardships  of  tropical  campaigns,  nor  to  combat 
successfully  the  camp  diseases  which  attacked  the  mo- 
bilized troops. 

The  National  Guard  of  To-day,  "With  the  end  of  the 
war  and  the  reorganization  of  the  Army,  came  a  call 
for  increased  efficiency  in  the  National  Guard.  By 
means  of  the  so-called  Dick  bill  (1903),  the  Organized 
Militia  became  a  portion  of  the  first  line  of  defense,  to 
serve  with  the  Regular  Army  and  to  be  called  out  in 
advance  of  the  Volunteers.  Advancement  has  since 
been  rapid.  All  organizations  are  now  inspected  reg- 
ularly and  judged  by  their  field  efficiency  alone.  Joint 
maneuvers  with  regular  troops  have  simulated  war 
conditions.  Officers  of  the  militia  have  been  admitted  to 
the  Service  Schools  of  the  Army,  andjiave  later  ren- 


THE   NATIONAL   GUARD  27 

dered  valuable  service  as  instructors  in  their  own  com- 
mands. Army  Officers  of  the  various  arms  of  the  ser- 
vice have  been  appointed  Inspector-Instructors  to  cor- 
responding troops  of  the  militia,  resulting  in  great 
profit  to  the  latter  and  in  greatly  increased  fellow 
feeling  and  understanding  between  the  two  services. 

The  Organized  Militia  of  to-day  is  a  far  cry  from  the 
''Hay-foot,  Straw-foot/'  drills  of  the  early  19th  cen- 
tury. 

Defects  of  the  National  Guard.  But  much  as  the 
National  Guard  has  advanced,  there  are  yet  great 
strides  to  be  made  before  it  can  justify  itself  as  a  first- 
line  defensive  force.  There  are  excellent  organizations 
in  the  Guard,  and  there  is  much  individual  excellence, 
but  as  a  whole  it  leaves  much  to  be  desired. 

Inefficiency,  as  applied  to  an  organization,  must  be 
considered  as  a  relative  term.  National  Guard  troops 
are  not  as  efficient  as  those  of  the  Army ;  various  organ- 
izations of  the  former  are  less  efficient  than  others; 
while  any  one  of  these  units  is  vastly  more  efficient  than 
the  militia  of  Colonial  times.  To  dub  a  regiment  or 
company  ''inefficient,"  therefore,  does  not  necessarily 
mean  that  it  is  utterly  worthless,  and  incapable  of  im- 
provement. 

In  any  war  that  we  might  have,  with  even  a  small 
state,  the  Army  and  Organized  Militia  combined  would 
be  insufficient,  and  we  should  have  to  call  out  numbers 
of  volunteers  from  the  Unorganized  Militia.  These 
men,  if  rushed  to  the  front  without  adequate  prepara- 
tion, would  be  about  on  a  par  with  the  militia  of  Wash- 
ington's  time,  with  this  exception:  Washington's 
militia  knew  how  to  shoot  and  to  live  out  of  doors. 

The  first  serious  defect  in  the  militia  therefore,  lies 
in  its  size.  The  training,  however  thorough,  cannot 
suffice  if  we  must  in  the  end  depend  upon  troops  who 
have  had  no  training.  The  theory  of  militia  service  is 
excellent.  The  men  are  not  taken  away  from  productive 


28  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE  ENGINEER 

pursuits  for  two  years  at  a  time,  as  in  ease  of  compul- 
sory service  in  the  army,  and  the  expense  is  much 
lighter  than  where  the  Government  must  pay  for  the 
full  time  of  a  man,  in  addition  to  housing,  clothing 
and  subsisting  him.  A  much  larger  force  can  be  main- 
tained, therefore,  than  would  be  possible  in  a  standing 
army.  At  the  same  time,  the  Government  must  expect 
to  receive  less  in  the  way  of  efficiency  than  from  troops 
who  devote  their  whole  time  to  military  matters.  If 
the  Federal  Government  is  willing  to  stand  the  in- 
creased cost,  the  Organized  Militia  can  be  .expanded 
to  the  size  necessary  to  properly  reinforce  the  Army. 
It  has  been  estimated  by  the  General  Staff  that  ten 
militiamen  can  be  maintained  at  the  same  cost  as  one 
soldier,  so  that  an  increase  in  the  militia  of  500,000  men 
would  cost  no  more  than  50,000  additional  soldiers. 
Half  a  million  partially  trained  soldiers  would  prob- 
ably be  more  effective  at  the  outset  of  war  than  a  highly 
efficient  force  of  50,000  regulars,  who  would  be  cut  to 
pieces  in  the  first  battle. 

The  second  important  defect  lies  not  in  the  Guard 
itself  but  is  nevertheless  a  real  handicap — the  atti- 
tude of  the  public.  The  old  farce  of  the  annual 
^^ Training  Day''  has  left  its  imprint  on  the  public 
mind,  and  the  Guard  is  still  regarded  as  an  aggrega- 
tion of  military  enthusiasts,  serving  simply  to  gratify 
their  love  of  playing  soldier.  Even  the  intelligent 
but  busy  citizen  is  apt  to  look  upon  the  service  as 
a  form  of  recreation  which  may  become  exceedingly 
annoying  by  making  inconvenient  demands  upon  his 
time. 

A  third  handicap  lies  in  the  attitude  of  the  War 
Department  itself,  and  until  this  is  altered  there  is 
little  hope  of  changing  public  opinion.  The  distrust 
of  the  War  Department  also  dates  back  to  the  days 
of  the  Revolutionary  militia  and  its  oft  proven  worth- 
lessness  in  battle.     The  impression  persists  that  un- 


THE   NATIONAL    GUARD  29 

der  similar  conditions  the  present  National  Guard 
would  be  of  as  little  use  as  then.  Nevertheless,  our 
volunteer  soldiers  have  usually  acquitted  themselves 
with  credit  in  battle,  and  the  National  Guard  is 
composed  entirely  of  volunteer  material ;  in  fact,  must 
be  regarded  as  volunteers  who  have  assumed  the  bur- 
den of  national  defense  before  an  actual  call  for 
their  services  in  order  to  be  more  nearly  ready  when 
that  call  comes. 

To  remove  this  distrust,  and  to  give  to  the  National 
Guard  a  serious  and  well  understood  role,  would,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  writer,  do  much  towards  filling  its 
ranks.  If  it  were  realized  by  the  average  man  that 
his  work  in  the  militia  would  not  be  wasted  but  would 
count  towards  national  defense,  and  that  the  "War 
Department  depended  upon  .the  National  Guard  and 
considered  it  an  integral  part  of  the  land  forces  of 
the  United  States,  then  many  of  the  objections  to 
membership  would  be  removed.  The  basic  principle 
of  the  National  Guard  is  voluntary  service  and  this 
the  average  man  is  willing  to  give,  even  at  some  in- 
convenience and  expense  to  himself,  if  he  knows  that 
he  will  be  taken  seriously  and  his  work  appreciated. 

The  National  Defense  Act  of  1916.  In  order  to 
afford  more  complete  Federal  control,  to  enforce  a 
stricter  property  accountability  and  better  attendance 
at  drills,  and  to  reimburse  officers  and  men  somewhat 
for  their  service  and  incident  expense,  the  National 
Defense  Act,  approved  June  3,  1916,  contained  sev- 
eral important  provisions  affecting  the  National 
Guard. 

This  Act  provided  for  an  ultimate  increase  in  the 
National  Guard  to  a  maximum  strength  (to  be  at- 
tained in  six  years)  of  800  for  each  representative  in 
Congress,  a  total  of  about  440,000,  and  authorized 
Federal  pay  for  officers  and  men  performing  forty- 
eight  drills  per  year.     It  was  also  provided  that  all 


30  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

officers  and  men  should  take  a  dual  oath  upon  entry 
into  service,  making  them  Federal  as  well  as  State 
forces.  This  was  done  to  overcome  the  drawback  oc- 
casioned by  the  decision  that  under  existing  law  the 
National  Guard  could  not  be  called  by  the  President 
for  service  outside  the  territorial  limits  of  the  United 
States.  Finally,  the  President  was  authorized  to 
draft  the  National  Guard  into  the  service  of  the 
United  States.  This  provision  would  remove  from 
State  control  the  recruiting  to  war  strength  of  such 
organizations  as  were  drafted  and  the  appointment 
of  officers  to  fill  the  existing  vacancies. 

The  National  Guard  provisions  of  this  law  have 
been  condemned  almost  from  the  start.  Army  cir- 
cles regard  the  pay  provision  as  a  waste  of  funds 
as  far  as  any  adequate  return  may  be  expected.  The 
divided  control,  it  is  claimed,  was  not  materially 
altered  by  the  dual  oath  provision,  and  no  amount 
of  training  can  raise  the  militia  to  a  high  state  of 
efficiency  until  this  dual  control  is  eliminated.  The 
governor  of  any  state,  not  in  sympathy  with  the  party 
in  power,  may  carry  his  desire  to  embarrass  the  na- 
tional administration  to  the  point  of  disbanding  en- 
tirely the  Organized  Militia  of  his  own  state  in  the 
face  of  impending  war.  Furthermore,  if  accepted 
bodily  into  the  Federal  service,  the  National  Guard 
would  be  commanded  by  a  number  of  general  officers, 
of  whom  practically  every  state  has  a  few,  many  of 
whom  are  political  appointees  purely,  have  no  pre- 
liminary training,  and  are  absolutely  unfitted  for  the 
commands  to  which  their  rank  would  entitle  them. 
And  yet  in  active  service  these  men  would  exercise 
command  over  many  Kegular  Officers,  with  years  of 
study  and  experience  to  their  credit. 

The  only  complete  remedy  is  full  Federalization 
and  U.  S.  Control,  and  this,  it  is  said,  cannot  be  ac- 
complished without  amending  the  Constitution,  which 


THE    NATIONAL    GUARD  31 

reserves  *^to  the  states  the  appointment  of  officers 
and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia  accord- 
ing to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress.'' 

It  is  true  that  under  the  Constitution  the  states 
must  exercise  certain  control  over  the  militia.  At 
any  rate  most  of  the  states  contribute  largely  to  its 
support,  almost  wholly  for  purposes  of  national  de- 
fense, but  that  the  state  can  force  upon  the  War  De- 
partment any  general  officer  or  a  system  of  training 
at  variance  with  the  approved  schedule  is  not  to  be 
considered.  The  courses  of  instruction  and  drill  for 
the  Organized  Militia  are  laid  out  by  the  War  De- 
partment and  followed  under  the  direction  of  Army 
officers  detailed  to  supervise  them.  Furthermore,  the 
state  may  appoint  as  many  general  officers  as  its 
authorities  see  fit,  but  their  appointment  is  no  guar- 
antee that  they  will  command  troops,  even  of  their 
own  state,  in  the  Federal  service.  The  War  Depart- 
ment can  regulate  this  very  effectively  by  mustering 
in  only  such  officers  as  are  acceptable  or  as  are  con- 
sidered necessary. 

For  example,  in  the  first  weeks  following  the  decla- 
ration of  a  state  of  war  with  Germany,  over  two  bri- 
gades of  troops  from  one  state  were  called  out  and 
mustered  into  the  Federal  service,  with  no  higher  of- 
ficer than  a  regimental  commander.  These  troops, 
once  in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  may  be  bri- 
gaded together  or  with  troops  from  other  states,  and 
an  officer  of  the  Army  appointed  to'  command  them. 
Thus  National  Guard  officers  in  the  Federal  service 
may  be  limited  to  the  rank  of  colonel  or  lower,  with- 
out changing  existing  regulations.  Furthermore, 
nominations  for  commissions  in  the  National  Guard 
must  now  be  approved  by  the  Militia  Bureau  of  the 
War  Department  before  the  state  may  proceed  to 
examine  the  candidate. 

The  possibility  of  any  politically  disgruntled  gov- 


32  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

ernor's  disbanding  the  Guard  of  his  state  on  the  eve 
of  war  is  too  remote  for  serious  discussion,  nor  would 
such  a  move,  concerning  only  one  state,  affect  ap- 
preciably the  total  forces  of  the  nation,  inasmuch  as 
the  state's  full  quota  of  volunteers  would  have  to  be 
supplied,  and  these  would  include  the  majority  of  the 
disbanded  guardsmen. 

The  militia  pay  provision  of  the  National  Defense 
Act  has  been  freely  criticised  by  the  press  as  having 
been  forced  upon  Congress  by  the  ^'National  Guard 
Lobby."  The  writer  cannot  affirm  nor  deny  the  ex- 
istence of  any  such  lobby.  Certainly  to  his  knowl- 
edge there  was  no  concerted  effort  in  the  Guard  to 
organize  or  support  it. 

It  is  true,  however,  that  the  National  Guard  did 
not  favor  the  substitute  device  which  was  proposed, 
the  so-called  Continental  Army.  Nor  did  this  oppo- 
sition arise,  as  has  been  stated,  from  the  officers'  fear 
of  losing  their  commissions,  for  the  proposed  force 
could  have  absorbed  all  the  officers  of  the  National 
Guard  twice  over.  Furthermore  the  bill  authorizing 
this  force  contemplated  drawing  largely  upon  the 
Guard  for  officers.  The  real  cause  of  the  objection 
was  the  conviction  that  the  Continental  Army  plan 
possessed  no  real  advantages  over  the  present  system, 
beyond  complete  Federal  control  and  longer  periods 
of  field  service.  We  have  seen  that  Federal  control 
of  the  National  Guard  may  be  fairly  effective  in  fact 
if  not  in  name,  and  there  is  certainly  enough  diffi- 
culty now  in  getting  men  released  by  their  employers 
for  the  ten  to  fifteen  days  required  annually  for  field 
service  to  show  the  impracticability  of  a  plan  requir- 
ing thirty  to  ninety  days  in  the  field. 

Furthermore,  this  field  service  was  the  only  train- 
ing contemplated.  There  were  to  be  no  armories  or 
common  meeting  places,  which  would  insure  almost  a 
complete  lack  of  contact  among  members  of  an  or- 


THE   NATIONAL   GUARD  33 

ganization  from  one  tour  of  field  service  to  the  next. 
Had  a  plan  been  offered  which  the  National  Guard 
honestly  considered  capable  of  better  results  than 
could  be  accomplished  by  its  own  system  under 
proper  support,   it  would  have  met  with  approval. 

At  that  time,  however,  universal  training,  which 
by  common  consent  appears  to  be  the  best  solution  of 
our  military  problems,  was  mentioned  only  as  a  de- 
sirable system,  to  which  the  people  might  some  day 
become  educated,  but  it  was  not  thought  advisable  to 
attempt  the  passage  of  an  act  introducing  it  until 
such  education  had  progressed  further. 

Finally  we  find  the  Militia  Bill  assailed  as  a  failure 
by  various  guardsmen  whose  families  or  business  suf- 
fered during  their  service  on  the  Mexican  Border. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  bill  has  never  had  a  try-out. 
The  militia  was  called  out  under  the  provisions  of 
the  Dick  Bill  of  1903,  and  many  of  the  organizations 
were  mustered  in  and  even  transported  to  the  Bor- 
der without  having  taken  the  dual  oath.  The  prin- 
cipal changes  brought  about  by  the  Defense  Act  were 
militia  pay  and  the  dual  oath,  enabling  the  President 
to  order  the  National  Guard  out  of  the  United  States. 
Neither  of  these  provisions  were  taken  advantage  of 
during  the  Mexican  Border  Service.  The  militia 
could  have  been  called  into  service,  taken  to  the  Mex- 
ican Border  and  kept  there  as  long  as  invasion  was 
imminent,  if  the  Defense  Act  of  1916  had  never  been 
passed.  The  bill  can  therefore  have  no  real  test 
until  the  militia  is  settled  down  to  peace  training 
under  the  Federal  pay  provision. 


IV. 

MILITARY   ORGANIZATION. 

Military  organization  is  of  necessity  the  most  cen- 
tralized and  complete  system  known.  There  is  an  un- 
broken chain  of  responsibility  reaching  from  the  com- 
mander-in-chief down  to  the  rawest  recruit.  At  the 
same  time  there  is  a  continuous  line  of  succession  ex- 
tending through  all  the  grades  and  ranks,  so  that,  how- 
ever heavy  the  casualities,  there  is  always  one  leader, 
and  only  one,  to  whom  the  army  may  look  for  orders. 

In  order  to  secure  concerted  action  and  immediate 
response  to  the  will  of  the  commander,  soldiers,  both 
officers  and  men,  voluntarily  subject  themselves  to  dis- 
cipline, which  Col.  Wagner,  in  his  ^^Art  of  War,''  de- 
fines as  follows : 

^  ^  Discipline  is  that  quality  possessed  by  efficient  sol- 
diers, which  enables  each  to  appreciate  and  accept 
without  question  the  powers  and  limitations  of  his  own 
rank,  which  inspires  each  with  confidence  in  the  mili- 
tary steadfastness  of  his  comrades,  and  renders  obe- 
dience to  lawful  orders  a  second  nature. ' ' 

ARMY   ORGANIZATION. 

The  Army  is  made  up  of  two  main  divisions :  the  Line 
and  the  Staff.  The  latter  is  charged  with  most  of  the 
administrative  work,  the  former  with  the  actual  fight- 
ing. 

The  Staff.     The  various  Staff  Departments  are : 

The  General  Staff,  which  prepares  all  plans  for  de- 
fense and  mobilization,  investigates  all  questions  affec- 
ting the  efficiency  of  the  Army,  and  acts  in  an  advisory 
capacity  to  the  Secretary  of  War. 

The  Adjutant  General's  Department,  which  handles 
all  orders,  correspondence  and  records  of  the  Army. 

34 


MILITARY    ORGANIZATION  35 

The  Inspector  GeneraVs  Department,  which  inspects 
and  reports  upon  all  matters  affecting  the  efficiency  of 
the  Army,  the  condition  of  property  and  supplies,  and 
the  expenditure  of  public  funds. 

The  Judge  Advocate  GeneraVs  Department,  which 
is  the  legal  bureau  of  the  Army,  and  has  charge  of  all 
records  of  general  court  martials,  courts  of  inquiry,  and 
military  commissions. 

The  Quartermaster  Corps,  comprising  the  former 
Quartermaster,  Subsistence  (Commissary)  and  Fay 
Departments,  This  corps  is  charged  with  the  trans- 
portation, clothing,  housing,  subsistence,  supply  and 
pay  of  the  Army,  and  with  all  duties  pertaining  to 
military  operations  which  are  not  specifically  assigned 
to  some  other  department. 

The  Medical  Department,  which  supervises  the  sani- 
tary condition  of  the  Army,  physical  examinations, 
care  of  sick  and  wounded,  and  the  management  of  mili- 
tary hospitals. 

The  Ordnance  Department,  which  supplies  arms, 
equipment  and  ammunition  to  the  Army.  This  depart- 
ment designs  and  manufactures  fighting  material  of 
all  kinds,  field  equipment,  horse  equipment,  etc.,  and 
maintains  the  arsenals  where  this  material  is  made,  re- 
paired and  stored. 

The  Signal  Corps,  which  constructs,  repairs  and  op- 
erates all  military  telegraph  and  telephone  lines  and 
cables,  balloon  trains,  aeroplanes,  etc. 

The  Corps  of  Eyigineers,  which  surveys  and  maps 
the  terrain,  plans  fortifications  and  field  works,  and 
lays  out  lines  of  communication.  Engineer  officers  of 
the  Staff  should  be  distinguished  from  those  serving 
with  troops,  who  are  a  part  of  the  Line. 

Staff  officers  hold  military  rank  as  do  those  of  the 
Line,  but  do  not  exercise  command  unless  placed  upon 
duty  under  orders  directing  them  to  do  so. 

The  Line,    The  Line  comprises  the  fighting  troops. 


36  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

the  Infantry,  or  foot  soldiers ;  the  Cavalry,  or  horse  sol- 
diers ;  the  Field  Artillery,  which  accompanies  the  Army 
in  the  field,  the  Coast  Artillery,  which  operates  the 
coast  defenses,  and  the  Engineers,  who  perform  the 
duties  outlined  in  Chapter  VI. 

The  Line  is  composed  of  Officers,  who  exercise  com- 
mand by  virtue  of  commissions  issued  by  the  President, 
(or,  in  the  National  Guard,  by  the  Governor)  and  the 
enlisted  men.  The  latter  include  privates,  and  N on-Com- 
missioned Officers  (Sergeants  and  Corporals),  who 
exercise  limited  authority  by  virtue  of  warrants  issued 
by  their  Commanding  Officers. 

The  N on-Commissioned  Staff  of  a  Post,  Regiment  or 
Battalion  consists  of  the  Sergeant -Major  and  the  Quar- 
termaster Sergeant,  The  Sergeant-Major's  duties 
correspond  to  those  of  a  first  sergeant. 

TACTICAL  ORGANIZATION. 

A  squad  comprises  seven  privates  and  a  corporal. 

Three  or  four  squads  form  a  platoon,  commanded  by 
a  sergeant  or  a  lieutenant. 

Four  platoons  form  the  company,  which  is  command- 
ed by  a  captain  and  is  the  smallest  administrative  unit 
of  the  army. 

Four  companies  form  a  battalion,  which  is  command- 
ed by  a  major,  and  is  the  smallest  unit  which  will  oper- 
ate independently  in  the  field.  The  staff  of  the  major 
comprises  an  adjutant  and  a  supply  officer  (quarter- 
master) . 

Three  battalions  from  a  regiment,  commanded  by 
a  colonel.  A  lieutenant-colonel  may  command  any 
fraction  of  a  regiment  greater  than  a  battalion.  A 
regiment  of  engineers,  under  the  Defense  Act  of  1916, 
consists  of  two  battalions  of  three  companies  each, 
with  a  total  strength  of  1,098  officers  and  men. 

Three  regiments  form  a  "brigade,  commanded  by  a 
brigadier-general. 


MILITARY   ORGANIZATION 


37 


An  infantry  division,  commanded  by  a  major-gen- 
eral, is  a  complete  army  in  itself,  and  comprises  three 
brigades  (nine  regiments)  of  infantry,  one  regiment 
of  cavalry,  one  brigade  (three  regiments)  of  field  ar- 
tillery, one  field  battalion  of  signal  troops  (one  wire 
company  and  one  radio  company),  one  aero  squadron, 
one  regiment  of  engineers,  sanitary  troops  and  wagon 
trains.  The  strength  of  an  infantry  division  as  now 
constituted  (July,  1917)  is  28,334  officers  and  men, 
9,300  animals,  75  guns,  493  wagons,  627  motor  trucks, 
and  92  machine  guns,  and  it  occupies  19  miles  of  road 
on  the  march.  The  trains  comprise  field  trains,  carry- 
ing camp  baggage  and  rations,  a  supply  train,  an  am- 
mwnition  train,  a  sanitary  train  (ambulances,  etc.), 
and  an  engineer  train. 

The  Engineer  Train  contains  ten  wagons,  one  for 
each  regiment  of  Infantry  and  Cavalry  in  the  Divi- 
sion.   Each  wagon  contains  the  following  equipment: 

Items.  Number.         Weight,  Pounds. 

Axes    26  130 

Crowbars 7  84 

Nails,    pounds —  100 

Pick    Mattocks 150  676 

Sand  Bags 450  256 

Saws,   hand 13  21 

Saws,   two-man. 13  52 

Shovels 300  1,200 

Wire,  pounds —  25 

Carborundum  Grinding  Wheel,  1 ' 

Saw  Set  for  hand  saws 1  ^  oy 

Saw  Tool  for  two-man  saws. . .  if 

Saw  Files  with  container 6 

Container  for  nails  and  edge 

tools —  30 

Explosives  and  other  requisites, 

pounds — -  164 

.    Total,  2,775 


38  PREPAREDNESS  AND  TtlE  ENGINEER 

A  cavalry  division  differs  from  that  of  the  infantry 
by  having  horse  artillery,  mounted  engineers,  and 
cavalry  regiments  instead  of  infantry.  Its  strength  is 
10,969  officers  and  men,  12,133  animals,  24  guns,  453 
wagons,  and  24  machine  guns.  It  occupies  11  miles  of 
road  on  the  march,  and  has  the  advantage  over  the  in- 
fantry of  greatly  increased  mobility. 

An  army  corps  is  the  proper  command  of  a  lieuten- 
ant-general, which  grade  is  not  at  present  authorized 
in  the  U.  S.  Army.  It  comprises  two  or  more  in- 
fantry divisions,  one  or  more  cavalry  divisions,  and 
additional  troops,  namely,  a  brigade  of  heavy  artil- 
lery, a  regiment  of  mountain  artillery  (depending 
upon  the  nature  of  the  country),  additional  engineer 
troops,  and  aero  squadrons  of  signal  troops.  There 
are  also  required  additional  transportation,  officers, 
enlisted  men  and  civilian  clerks. 

The  mobilization,  equipment,  transportation  and 
supply  of  such  a  force  is  a  task  that  calls  for  organiz- 
ing ability  of  the  highest  order.  Each  commander 
holds  his  subordinates  responsible,  not  only  for  the 
actions  of  their  commands,  but  for  their  proper  in- 
struction, discipline  and  all  that  pertains  to  their  effi- 
ciency. He,  in  turn,  is  responsible  to  his  superiors  for 
the  state  of  his  own  command.  Duties  devolving  -upon 
an  officer  may  be  assigned  by  him  to  subordinates,  but 
his  responsibility  for  the  proper  performance  of  this 
duty  does  not  cease.  Responsibility  cannot  be  trans- 
ferred. 

Upon  the  company  commander  probably  falls  the 
greatest  burden,  as  he  comes  into  direct  contact  with 
the  men,  and  is  subject  to  all  the  annoyances  of  keep- 
ing them  in  order  and  in  a  state  of  efficiency.  He  is 
charged  with  the  preparation  of  the  raw  material,  as 
well  as  its  effective  use  in  the  field. 

The  lieutenants  are  his  main  reliance  in  carrying 
on  the  work  of  instruction.     They  drill  the  company, 


MILITARY    ORGANIZATION  39 

hold  schools  for  the  men  and  non-commissioned  officers, 
inspect  equipment  and  quarters,  take  the  company  at 
routine  formations,  and  try  in  every  way  to  assist  the 
captain  and  leave  him  free  for  the  administrative  work. 
Every  lieutenant  should  be  capable  of  commanding  the 
company,  not  only  as  a  precaution  against  the  absence 
of  the  captain,  but  in  way  of  preparedness  for  war, 
when  our  forces  will  be  greatly  expanded,  and  many 
officers  of  existing  organizations  will  be  detailed  to 
higher  commands. 

The  major  is  relieved  of  many  of  the  details  and 
routine  work  that  annoy  a  company  commander,  but 
he  has  additional  responsibilities  which  probably  out- 
weigh the  advantages  of  his  position.  His  is  the  small- 
est command  which  will  operate  independently  in  the 
field,  and  questions  of  supply,  field  orders  and  the 
administration  of  his  battalion  will  more  than  occupy 
his  mind. 

And  so  on  as  one  goes  higher.  At  each  step  the  com- 
mander is  freed  from  some  of  the  detail,  but  his  re- 
sponsibilities are  commensurately  increased. 


MILITARY  ADMINISTRATION. 

Administration  is  army  government.  It  is,  however, 
usually  considered  as  separate  from  the  actual  work  of 
disciplining"  and  training  an  organization.  The  term 
administration,  therefore,  may  be  said  to  include  the 
items  of  money  accountability,  property  accountability, 
supply,  company  books  and  records  and  correspond- 
ence. This  classification,  while  not  complete,  will  facil- 
itate explanation  of  the  duties  of  a  company  com- 
mander. 

Money  Accountability.  A  company  officer  of  volun- 
teer engineers  is  not  likely  to  become  a  disbursing  otH- 
cer,  nor  to  be  charged  with  the  custody  of  public  funds. 
However,  a  few  rules  as  to  the  handling  of  financial 
accounts  of  a  minor  character  will  not  be  amiss. 

A  safe  rule  is  that  no  property  is  to  be  purchased 
nor  funds  expended  without  the  sanction  of  higher 
authority,  usually  the  Adjutant  General  of  the  De- 
partment, to  whom  application  must  be  made  through 
military  channels.  A  citation  of  this  authority  must 
accompany  the  voucher  when  presented  for  payment. 

Except  in  case  of  emergency,  or  to  provide  food  for 
his  men  when  traveling  under  orders,  an  officer  should 
not  make  cash  purchases  of  supplies  or  material,  ex- 
pecting reimbursement  later.  The  person  from  whom 
such  material  was  purchased  must  submit  a  voucher  (a 
creditor's  claim  for  payment),  in  duplicate,  upon  the 
face  of  which  the  purchasing  officer  certifies  that  the 
articles  were  received  or  services  rendered  as  specified. 
The  voucher  is  then  forwarded  to  the  disbursing  offi- 
cer for  payment.  The  voucher  must  bear  the  follow- 
ing certificate  signed  by  the  creditor : 

40 


MILITARY    ADMINISTRATION  41 

''I  certify  that  the  above  account  is  correct  and  just, 
and  that  payment  therefor  has  not  been  received. ' ' 

John  Doe. 

Only  the  original  and  not  the  duplicate  is  thus  certi- 
fied. An  officer  should  provide  himself  with  the  proper 
blank  voucher  forms  for  use  in  such  transactions. 

When  expenses  are  incurred  in  traveling  or  in  an 
emergency,  a  voucher  must  be  submitted  for  the  proper 
mileage  in  case  of  travel,  or  for  the  items  of  expendi- 
ture in  case  of  reimbursement.  Receipts  for  all  items 
must  accompany  vouchers  foi^  reimbursement  and 
travel  orders  must  be  attached  to  mileage  vouchers. 
The  officer  must  certify,  as  payee,  that  the  travel  was 
performed  as  per  the  attached  order  and  was  necessary 
in  the  military  service. 

An  officer  assigned  to  any  duty  which  may  involve 
financial  accountability  must  familiarize  himself  with 
the  Army  Regulations  as  pertaining  to  disbursements. 

Property  Ac  count  aiility.  All  public  property  is  of 
two  classes :  expendable  and  non-expendable. 

Expendable  supplies  are  those  which  are  consumed, 
as  fuel,  forage  and  rations;  those  which  are  used  in 
works,  as  spikes,  wire,  bolts  and  sand  bags ;  and  those 
which  are  frequently  broken  or  worn  out  in  use,  as  tent 
pins  and  axe  handles. 

Non-expendable  property  consists  of  tentage,  arms, 
equipment,  tools,  etc.  Such  articles,  when  worn  out, 
cannot  be  thrown  away,  but  must  be  submitted  for  the 
action  of  an  inspector  appointed  for  this  purpose.  If 
found  unserviceable  the  property  is  condemned  by  him 
and  destroyed  in  his  presence,  and  the  accountable  offi- 
cer is  relieved  of  accountability  therefor,  upon  the  in- 
spector's certificate,  approved  by  higher  authority. 

When  property  is  lost  or  damaged  through  other 
than  fair  wear  and  tear  in  the  service,  the  accountable 
officer  at  once  makes  application  to  higher  authority 


42  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

for  a  Board  of  Survey,  which  may  consist  of  one  or 
more  disinteresteji  officers.  This  Board  investigates 
the  causes  of  loss  or  damage,  examines  witnesses,  and 
endeavors  to  fix  the  responsibility.  Upon  its  recom- 
mendation, approved  by  higher  authority,  the  account- 
able officer  may  be  relieved,  or  held  for  the  value  of  the 
property,  in  which  latter  case  the  responsible  officer 
must  reimburse  the  Government  for  the  amount  of  the 
loss  or  damage  as  fixed  by  the  Board  of  Survey.  An 
accountable  officer  not  satisfied  with  the  findings  of  a 
Board  of  Survey  may  appeal  to  the  Department  Com- 
mander, whose  action  is  final. 

All  property  is  obtained  by  issue  upon  requisition, 
A  requisition  is  a  statement  of  property  required  and 
the  use  to  which  it  will  be  put.  It  must  be  submitted 
on  the  prescribed  forms  and  must  bear  a  certificate 
to  the  effect  that  the  property  is  necessary  in  the  mili- 
tary service.  The  issuing  officer,  at  the  arsenal  or 
depot,  invoices  the  property  to  the  organization  supply 
officer,  who  must  receipt  for  it  and  account  for  each 
item  upon  periodical  returns,  which  are  complete 
statements  of  the  property  on  hand  at  the  date  of  the 
previous  return,  that  received  during  the  period,  that 
disposed  of  during  the  period,  and  the  amount  on  hand. 
An  accountable  officer  may,  upon  memorandum  re- 
ceipt, issue  property  to  another  officer,  who  thus  be- 
comes responsible  for  the  property  so  issued.  He  ren- 
ders no  returns,  but  must  produce  the  property  upon 
demand.  An  accountable  officer,  therefore,  is  also  the 
responsible  officer  only  when  the  property  is  actually 
in  his  possession. 

Accountability  for  expendable  supplies  is  termin- 
ated by  the  receipt  of  the  officer  to  whom  they  are  is- 
sued for  use,  or  in  some  cases,  by  certificate  of  ex- 
penditure. 

Property  pertaining  to  one  bureau  must  be  account- 
ed for  on  the  return  to  the  chief  of  that  bureau.     For 


MILITARY    ADMINISTRATION 


43 


instance,  property  issued  by  the  Engineer  Depart- 
ment must  not  be  taken  up  on  Quartermaster  or  Ord- 
nance returns. 

In  general  orders  of  the  War  Department,  accessible 
at  every  army  post,  are  published  lists  of  property 
which  constitute  the  authorized  equipment  of  each 
organization.  A  booklet  published  by  the  War  Depart- 
ment, entitled  ^'Engineer  Unit  Accountability  Equip- 
ment Manual,''  contains  complete  information  as  to 
Engineer  equipment. 

Supply.  The  question  of  supply,  as  it  pertains  to 
the  company  in  the  field,  is  merely  a  matter  of  draw- 
ing forage,  clothing  and  rations  from  the  nearest  quar- 
termaster. It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  many  volun- 
teers at  the  Spanish  War  mobilization  camps  went  hun- 
gry simply  because  their  commanders  did  not  know 
how  to  draw  rations. 

Form  I  illustrates  the  ration  return  used  by  the  U. 
S.  Army.  Orders  are  usually  issued  from  headquar- 
ters as  to  the  period  for  which  rations  are  to  be  drawn. 
The  first  return  submitted,  therefore,  shows  the 
strength  of  the  command  and  the  number  of  days, 
which  include  the  limiting  dates.  Thus  Sept.  1-5  indi- 
cates a  five-day  period.  For  a  company  of  164  men, 
therefore,  5  X  164  =  820  rations  are  required. 


Ration  Return  j^^a,M^Maf.J^jr^^-6/:.S:.}C 


Mo,  of  days     ^ ,  persons  present-..~....y^.5i 

Additions — ^ 


deductions-- 2.Q... 


_,  No.  of  rations       S2S  ...... 


,  net  corrections 


-<3// 


No.  emergency  rations  required 


Otiier  issues  required,  quantities  actually  required  within  replation  allowance;       (No.  of  animals — .f^.f^...-...-) 


FORM   I.      RATION  RETURN — FACE 


44  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


rms  CBBTinCATE  IKB  APPBOTAL  COVUB  THE  ISSCES  IKDICATEB  OIT  THE  BETEBSE  SIBB  OTBEOP. 

r  Ce^/i/that  thU  RaUon  Return  Is  correct  and  that  the  laat  regular  Issue  of  raUon.  was  made  h^  A/-^o/ 

-£Uj/!^Zn^-..^L.^Ja:aAL ,  Quartermaster  at.Z;:Z5^_Z2.^42Z.^i^l^2;^^^  to  .nc.ud. 

te  of ^/y/7t^    .%. — . i9U^  that  the  emergency  rations  entered  (if  any)  are  reouired  for  the  enllatPrt  mM 

of  my  command,  and  the  money  value  of TiTprevlously  drawn  and  Improperly  opened  or   ost  has  been  char«d  aiLnst  tS' 

Tons" "l^ndTar  h?=   n'f  "'^  T'  T'"''''  '''  '""""  """"'  *"  '«""'->  <«  "^^  -«  -""«"  ^T^to  under  thTret^ 
Uons.  and  that  the  articles,  other  than  rations,  above  requested  are  n«c««.rv  f„-  ♦k.  »..k,,-  -....^„  *^  *^ 


d  are  necessary  for  the  public  service. 


I  1  -th..j7C~.2^^_^^ 


i^<\€Mf  /' 


■At  f^nrgf  n/  I  -^-^'^--.^^—2^00^..^^^^} 


Approved  and  ordered  Issued.    The  total  raUons  required  agree  with  the  morning  reports,  and  the  quanUtles  of  othw 
.*rUcle»  ordered  Issued  are  necessary  Jn  the  public  service  and  within  the  xegulaUon  allowance. 


^to™  S^^ln"l2^^'.?.."'*^^**  "*'^*"*'  ''"'^"'  ^""""'•'"  ■^P-  "'  «'"•''•  •  Deuchment.  OtH  En.ploye«i,  etc. 

FORM  I.   RATION  RETURN — BACK 

Let  US  suppose  that  on  Sept.  2d,  after  rations  have 
been  drawn  for  the  five  days,  five  men  report  sick  and 
are  sent  to  the  hospital.  They  leave  after  breakfast,  so 
take  two  meals  at  the  hospital,  which  thus  receives 
credit  for  their  rations  on  this  date.  The  company  has 
therefore  drawn  5  X  4  =  20  rations  too  many  for  the 
five-day  period.  But  on  Sept.  4th,  before  supper,  six 
men  from  a  signal  detachment  are  assigned  to  the  com- 
pany for  rations.  They  have  one  meal  on  the  4th,  for 
which  the  company  receives  no  credit,  but  they  are 
charged  with  a  full  ration  on  the  5th.  On  the  6th,  ra- 
tions are  drawn  for  the  period  Sept.  6-10.  The  five  men 
are  still  in  the  hospital,  and  the  signalmen  are  still  at- 
tached, so  the  ration  strength  of  the  company  is  164  — 
5  +  6  =  165,  which,  multiplied  by  the  number  of  days 
for  which  drawing  rations,  gives  165  X  5  =  825  ra- 
tions. 

825 
Additions.. . .     6     (Six  signalmen,  one  day.) 


831 
Deductions..  .   20     (Five  men  in  hospital,  4  days.) 


811= Total  rations  required. 


MILITARY    ADMINISTRATION  45 

The  quantities  which  may  be  drawn  of  ice,  candles, 
and  other  supplies  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the  ration 
return  are  listed  in  the  Subsistence  Manual. 

A  detachment  in  the  field,  losing  track  of  its  own  or- 
ganization, may  report  to  the  nearest  command  for  ra- 
tions. Their  own  command  carries  a  deduction  or 
minus,  during  their  absence,  and  the  organization  with 
which  they  mess  carries  a  plus,  or  addition,  during 
their  presence.  Many  a  volunteer  has  gone  supperless 
to  bed  through  lack  of  knowledge  of  this  provision. 

The  clothing  and  equipment  required  by  the  individ- 
ual soldier  is  listed  in  general  orders,  which  also  give 
the  bureau  by  which  these  articles  are  issued.  Each 
soldier  upon  enlisting  draws  a  complete  outfit  of  cloth- 
ing, not  to  exceed  in  value  the  amount  of  his  initial 
allowance.  He  also  has  a  running  allowance  of  so  much 
per  day,  which  is  supposed  to  provide  for  renewals. 
Clothing  required  in  excess  of  these  allowances  may  be 
drawn  by  the  soldier,  but  the  excess  cost  is  stopped  out 
of  his  pay  when  his  accounts  are  balanced  at  stated 
periods.  Any  unexpended  clothing  allowance  may  be 
drawn  in  cash  upon  his  discharge  from  the  service. 

The  captain  is  responsible  for  the  proper  outfitting 
of  his  command,  and  he  is  specifically  charged  with  per- 
sonal supervision  over  the  fit  of  his  men's  shoes. 

Clothing  drawn  by  a  soldier  is  marked  by  his  name, 
and  becomes  his  personal  property,  but  it  cannot  be 
sold.  Severe  penalties  are  visited  upon  both  seller  and 
buyer  in  such  a  transaction,  even  when  the  latter  is  a 
civilian. 

Company  Books  and  Records.  The  principal  report 
rendered  by  a  company  commander  is  one  showing  the 
state  of  the  command  and  the  status  of  each  man.  This 
is  known  as  the  Morning  Report,  and  must  be  submit- 
ted daily.  It  consists  of  two  blank  pages,  on  the  first 
of  which  is  entered  under  each  date  the  number  of  offi- 
cers and  men  of  each  grade  present  for  duty,  present 


46 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


on  extra  duty,  special  duty,  sick  in  quarters,  and  in 
arrest  or  confinement.  There  is  also  entered  the  total 
number  absent,  and  the  aggregate  strength  of  the  com- 
mand. Any  man  drawing  rations  with  the  company  is 
carried  as  present,  otherwise  as  absent.  Thus  men 
absent  without  leave,  with  leave  (on  pass  or  furlough) 
on  detached  service,  sick  in  hospital,  or  in  confinement 
where  prisoners  are  not  rationed  with  their  commands, 
are  carried  as  absent. 

On  opposite  page  are  entered  the  changes  only.  Thus 
on  the  18th  (Form,  II  below).  Private  Sweeney  is  still 
absent  without  leave  and  Corporal  Kelly  is  stiirabsent 


MORNING    REPORTS 

OF 

/  *^  '  (Orgaaizatioo^/ 

FOR  THE  MONTH  OF 

.^^^^^A^.. 191^ 


FORM   II.      MORNING   REPORTS — COVER 


^^^,/^/^.^</ 


FORM    II.      MORNING    REPORTS — LEFT-HAND    PAGE 


MILITARY    ADMINISTRATION  47 


/r/^  r^rsnv^n^^y.  /?.  /n  /fh^'/ .  r^r^  /^/^  n  fc  ^^  i^/.. 


=^^ 


P'"^^/  >^/cr-y^^y.   >*^c^^/  "'t^i^A^,^/-  n  />,  y^  h/o/ /s/^/. /^/- Afuqp^  n  J^.r/rA  //?A 


tZ-/4^ 


^^A^,^/-Ar  i^>/ 


a^^/m?^ it^  -/ 


^^s^A<^  /n 


Via/yj   j-v^^jy^r" 


FORM    II.      MORNING    REPORTS — RIGHT-HAND    PAGE 

with  leave,  so  there  is  no  change  in  the  status  of  the 
company,  and  no  remarks  are  necessary.  Rations  are 
here  supposed  to  have  been  drawn  for  five  days,  Sep- 
tember 16-20,  for  the  full  enlisted  strength  of  the  com- 
mand, 164  (officers  not  rationed).  Hence  two  men  are 
absent  for  four  days  and  2X4  =  8  rations  must  be 
deducted  from  the  next  ration  return. 

On  the  19th,  seven  men  go  absent,  as  indicated,  three 
without  leave,  one  to  the  hospital,  and  three  upon  de- 
tached service  in  the  field.  One  man  is  placed  in  con- 
finement, but  rationed  with  the  company.  The  deduc- 
tions for  the  two  days,  September  19-20,  are  therefore 
2  X  7'  =  14  rations.  Private  Sweeney  returns  from 
absence  without  leave  to  duty,  and  for  the  two  days 
there  is  an  addition  of  two  rations. 

On  the  20th,  one  man  is  discharged.  Deduction,  one 
ration.  Three  men  return  from  absence  without  leave 
and  one  enlists.  Additions,  4  rations.  Total  deduc- 
tions, 23  ;  total  additions,  6.  Strength  at  beginning  of 
next  period,  September  21-25,  160  (4  officers  not  ra- 
tioned and  4  men  absent.  Eations  required  for  next 
period  (5  X  160)  +  6  —  23  =  783. 

In  the  back  of  the  Morning  Eeport  is  space  for  a 
chronological  record  of  general  events. 


48  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

Unless  the  morning  report  and  ration  return  of  a 
company  are  correctly  kept  and  check  one  another,  the 
men  are  likely  to  fare  bad|y. 

Each  morning,  at  ''First  Sergeant's  Call,"  the  first 
sergeant  proceeds  to  next  superior  headquarters  and 
turns  in  his  morning  report,  previously  signed  by  the 
company  commander.  Ration  returns,  on  the  days 
when  due,  are  also  turned  in  to  these  headquarters  to 
be  approved  and  forwarded  to  the  supply  officer. 

The  sergeant-major  of  the  battalion  or  regiment  pre- 
pares from  the  company  reports  a  Consolidated  Morn- 
ing Report,  showing  the  state  of  the  entire  command. 

At  ''Issue  Call,"  the  company  quartermaster  ser- 
geant, accompanied  by  enough  help  to  carry  back  the 
rations,  proceeds  to  the  storehouse  and  receives  the  ra- 
tions for  his  company,  receipting  therefor  to  the  post  or 
regimental  quartermaster  sergeant.  Rations  will  prob- 
ably be  issued  for  only  one  or  two  days  of  the  period 
for  which  a  return  was  submitted,  as  there  are  better 
facilities  at  the  store-house  for  keeping  provisions. 

In  garrison  or  permanent  camp,  a  company  may 
save  on  their  ration  allowance,  drawing  the  unexpend- 
ed balance  in  cash,  which  thus  forms  the  basis  of  the 
company  fund.  This  fund  is  also  augmented  by  divi- 
dends from  the  Post  Exchange^  or  store,  in  which  the 
company  may  own  stock,  and  from  the  post  bakery,  as 
savings  on  bread  materials. 

The  Sick  Report  is  made  out  only  when  necessary. 
At  "Sick  Call"  in  the  morning,  the  men  who  are  ailing 
report,  and  an  entry  is  made  for  each,  showing  the  date, 
the  man's  name  and  grade,  the  time  of  reporting  sick, 
and  whether  in  the  captain's  judgment  the  sickness  is 
in  line  of  duty,  i.  e.,  due  to  natural  causes  occurring  in 
the  ordinary  performance  of  duty,  or  not  in  line  of 
duty,  due  to  the  carelessness,  neglect  or  misconduct  of 
the  soldier.  The  men  are  then  sent  to  the  surgeon,  who 
examines  them  and  marks  after  their  names  duty,  light 


MILITARY    ADMINISTRATION  49 

duty,  quarters,  or  hospital,  as  the  case  may  demand. 
He  also  enters  a  remark  as  to  whether  the  sickness  or 
injury  was  in  line  of  duty.  His  judgment  in  this  mat- 
ter supersedes  and  may  reverse  that  of  the  captain. 

The  proper  classification  of  the  disability,  whether 
or  not  in  line  of  duty,  is  of  importance  as  affecting  any 
claim  that  may  be  made  later  for  a  pension. 

The  Duty  Roster  is  a  list  of  the  men  in  the  company 
liable  for  any  particular  duty,  usually  for  guard.  A 
separate  roster  must  be  kept  for  each  grade,  sergeants, 
corporals,  and  privates.  The  first  sergeant  is  notified 
each  day  as  to  the  number  of  non-commissioned  officers 
and  privates  that  will  be  required  for  guard  the  fol- 
lowing day.  The  roster  shows  the  last  similar  duty  per- 
formed by  each  man,  and  those  longest  off  duty  are  de- 
tailed. 

The  Order  File  is  a  file  of  all  orders  received  or  issued 
by  the  company,  including  General  Orders  of  the  War 
Department,  Post,  and  Regiment  or  Battalion,  and 
such  Special  Orders  as  affect  the  company  or  refer  to 
its  personnel. 

General  Orders  are  such  as  affect  the  entire  command 
of  the  officer  issuing  them.  For  example,  the  follow- 
ing is  a  general  order : 

Headquarters  2nd  Engineers,  U.  S.  V. 

Camp  Columbia,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  18,  1917. 
General  Orders, 
No.  14. 

1.     This  command  will  form  to-morrow,  Sept.  19, 
1917,  at  8 :00  A.  M.,  in  service  uniform  with  field  equip- 
ment, for  inspection  by  the  commanding  officer. 
By  command  of  Col.  Jones, 
Henry  C.  Ross, 

Capt.,  2nd  Engrs.,  U.  S.  Y., 
Adjutant. 


50  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

The  following  is  a  special  order : 

Headquarters  2nd  Engineers,  U.  S.  V. 

Camp  Columbia,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  20,  1917. 
1.     1st  Class  Private  AVilliam  Roberts,  Company  H. 
2nd  Engineers,  IT.  S.  V.,  is  detailed  as  headquarters 
clerk  and  will  report  to  the  adjutant  for  duty. 
By  command  of  Col.  Jones, 
Henry  C.  Ross, 

Capt.,  2nd  Engrs.,  U.  S.  V. 
Adjutant. 

The  Company  Fund  Book  shows  all  receipts  into  and 
expenditures  from  the  company  fund. 

The  Company  Small  Arms  Practice  Record  is  a  loose- 
leaf  book  or  a  card  file  containing  the  record  practice 
and  qualifications  for  each  soldier  in  small  arms  firing. 

The  Descriptive  List  is  a  small  pamphlet  of  twelve 
pages,  of  the  size  of  a  folded  letter,  and  containing 
blank  spaces  for  his  complete  description,  military  rec- 
ord, including  previous  service,  service  as  non-com- 
missioned officer,  markmanship,  horsemanship,  battles, 
wounds,  convictions  by  court-martial,  etc.,  and  for  his 
accounts,  including  deposits  with  the  paymaster,  cloth- 
ing drawn,  and  a  record  of  final  settlem^cnts  at  dis- 
charge. When  a  soldier  is  transferred  to  another  or- 
ganization or  post,  even  if  temporarily,  his  descriptive 
list  accompanies  him. 

The  Correspondence  Booh  and  Document  File  will  be 
considered  under  the  head  of 

Correspondence.  The  specimen  letter  (Form  IIT, 
below)  shows  the  correct  form  for  a  military  communi- 
cation. On  the  upper  fold  of  the  letter  is  written  the 
place  and  the  date,  and  the  words 


MILITARY    ADMINISTRATION  51 


COMPANY   "D" 

■CORPS   OF    ENGINEERS.   N.  <S.   N.  Y 
«e«TH  ST  AND  rORT  WASHINGTON  AVE 


NEW  YORK  CITY.  S»pt.  11,  1916. 

FROM  -  Commanding  Officer,  Co.  D,  22nd  Corps  of  Sngineers,  N.  &.  N.  Y. 
TO-  Coiraaandine  Officer,  22nd  Corps  of  Enelnaers,  N.  0.  H.  Y. 
SUBJECT:-  Musterlng  Prirato  Hsnpy,  Co.  J),  with  Co.  J. 


1.  Permission  la  requested  to  muster  Private  John  C.  Henry,  of  this 
company,  wjth  Company  J,  22nd  C.  of  B. ,  on  Sept.  25,  1916. 

Z.     Private  Henry  was  absent  on  the  nlfifht  of  Sept.  4,  1916,  and  oould 
cot  be  rauatered  with  this  organization. 

Captain,  Corps  of  ^gineare,  IT.  Cr>  IT*  X% 

'1st  Ind. 
Hdqrs  22nd  C.  of  B. ,  Sept.  15,  1916  -  to  C,  0,,  Co  D. 

1.  Hatumed  by  direction  of  Col.  Smith. 

2.  Information  le'roquestad  as  to  the  reason  for  Private  Henry's  absence 
from  the  muster  of  his  company  on  Sept.  4,  1916. 

Capt.  Corps  of  Engrs,  N.  G.  Tf.  Y», 

Adjutant . 

2nd  Ind. 
Co  D,  22nd  C  of  E.,  S^pt.  18,  1916  -  to  C.  0.,  22nd  C.  of  B.. 

1  Returned. 

2.  Private  Henry's  absence  on  Sept.  4,  1916  was  due  to  an  injury  to  his 
foot,  caused  by  his  dropping  a  heavy  casting  ujwn  it  In  the  shop  whore  he  is 
employed. 

3.  Private  Henry  was,  from  Sept.  1  -  10,  1916,  Under  the  care  of  a  pbys- 
ioian,  whoso  certificate  is  inclosed. 

(1  Inol.)  Capt.,  C.  of  S.«  Cmndg.  Co.  S. 

3rd  Ind. 
Hdqrs  22nd  C.  of  S.,  Sept.  18,  1916  -  to  C.  0.,  Co.  D.- 

1.  Approved. 

2.  The  return  of  this  paper  is  requested.     By  direction  of  Col.  Smith. 

Capt.,  C  of  E.,  Adjt, 
(Seoond  Sheet) 


4th  Ind. 
Co.   D,.  22nd  C.   of  K.,  Sept.  20,  1916  -  to  C.  0.,  22nd  C.  of  B. 


1.  Returned. 

2.  Noted. 


if 


Capt.  C.  of  K. ,  CmndiP.  Co.  9 

(]tabber  Stamp) 

Rec'd  back  Hdqrs  22nd  C  Of  B  9-20-1916. 

FORM  III.       MILITARY  COMMUNICATION 


52  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

''From/'  '[To/'  and  "Subject.''  In  filling  out  a 
heading,  designations  of  officers  rather  than  their 
names,  should  be  used,  thus :  From:  Commanding  Offi- 
cer, Co.  H,  2nd  Engineers,  U.  S.  V. 

If  a  letter  is  to  go  higher  than  the  next  superior 
headquarters,  it  is  addressed  to  the  officer  who  will  take 
action,  adding  under  his  name  ^^  (Through  Military 
Channels)''  and  sent  to  the  next  superior  headquar- 
ters to  be  forwarded. 

The  subject  should  not  contain  more  than  ten  words, 
and  no  letter  must  refer  to  more  than  one  subject. 

The  heading  as  indicated,  and  nothing  else,  must 
occupy  the  top  fold. 

The  body  of  the  letter  follows,  without  salutation, 
the  paragraphs  numbered,  and  a  margin  of  one  inch 
at  the  left.  If  written  upon  a  typewriter,  paragraphs 
are  single  spaced,  and  separated  by  a  double  space. 
The  signature  follows  the  body  of  the  letter  without 
closing  expressions,  such  as  ^^ Yours  respectfully."  If 
the  grade  and  position  of  an  officer  are  given  in  the 
heading,  they  are  not  repeated  in  the  signature. 

Indorsements  follow  the  signature  in  order,  num- 
bered consecutively.  They  must  indicate  the  organiza- 
tion by  whom  sent,  the  headquarters  or  officer  ad- 
dressed, and,  if  transmitting  indorsements  only,  may 
simply  contain  the  word  '  ^  Forwarded ' '  in  their  body. 

It  is  customary  in  replying  to  a  letter  to  return  the 
original  by  indorsement,  instead  of  writing  a  second 
letter.  If  inclosures  are  sent,  their  number  is  indicated 
at  the  left  of  the  letter,  opposite  the  signature. 

Two  carbon  copies  of  a  letter  are  made,  one  of  which 
is  retained  by  the  sending  officer,  the  other,  signed  by 
initials  only,  or  by  a  typewritten  signature,  is  forward- 
ed with  the  letter.  This  is  for  the  files  of  the  receiving 
officer  if  the  letter  is  returned  by  indorsement  or  for- 
warded to  a  higher  headquarters.  Press  copies  are  no 
longer  used. 


MILITARY    ADMINISTRATION  53 

In  mailing,  the  top  fold  is  folded  hack,  and  the  bot- 
tom fold  up,  covering  the  body  of  the  letter.  The  top 
fold,  with  the  heading,  is  therefore  left  on  the  outside 
of  the  folded  letter,  taking  the  place  of  the  former 
briefing. 

In  the  Correspondence  Book  is  kept  a  record  of  the 
writer  of  each  letter  sent  or  received,  the  person  or 
office  addressed,  the  date  forwarded,  a  brief  of  the  con- 
tents, and  a  record  of  the  action  taken.  The  form  let- 
ter shown  would  have  the  following  entry : 

53 
C.  0.  Co.  D,  22nd  C.  of  E.,  N.  G.  N.  Y. 

to  C.  0.  22nd  C.  of  E.,  9-11-16. 
Eequests  permission  to  muster  Pvt. 
Henry  with  Company  J,  9-25-16. 
Rec'd  back  9-18-16. 
To  C.  0.  22nd  C.  of  E.,  9-18-16. 
Eec^d  back  9-21-16,  Approved. 
Noted  and  returned. 

This  would  be  cross-indexed  under  the  headings  mus- 
ter and  Henry.  A  copy  of  the  letter  is  numbered  seri- 
ally to  correspond  with  number  of  the  entry  in  the  Cor- 
respondence Book,  the  indorsements  relating  to  the  ac- 
tion taken  are  copied  upon  it,  and  the  copy  is  filed  in 
the  Document  File. 


VI. 

ENGINEER  TROOPS  IN  THE  FIELD. 

DUTIES. 

According  to  the  Official  Bulletin  of  the  General 
Staff,  U.  S.  Army,  Vol.  I,  No.  4,  December,  1914,  the 
duty  of  engineer  troops  in  the  field  is  to  apply  engineer- 
ing science  to  the  emergencies  of  modem  warfare  in 
order  to  protect  and  assist  troops,  to  ameliorate  the 
conditions  under  which  they  are  serving,  to  facilitate 
locomotion  and  communication,  and  whenever  the  occa- 
sion requires  to  act  as  purely  combatant  troops. 

Captain  Thomas  M.  Robins,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U. 
S.  Army,  in  his  lecture  to  the  United  Engineering  So- 
cieties upon  ' '  Organization  and  Duties  of  Engineers  in 
War"  used  the  following  apt  comparison :  **  An  army 
in  the  field  is  a  machine  which  may  be  worn  out  and 
rendered  unserviceable  by  interior  as  well  as  exterior 
friction.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  engineer  to  lubricate  this 
machine  and  at  the  same  time  to  throw  sledge  hammers 
into  the  gears  and  cogs  of  the  enemy's  machine,  to  pre- 
vent its  working  as  he  wishes. ' ' 

In  the  performance  of  these  duties  engineers  are 
trained  and  equipped  to  supplement  or  amplify  by 
scientific  measures  the  efforts  of  combatant  troops  in 
the  services  enumerated  below  and  such  other  special 
services  of  an  engineering  nature  as  may  arise  and  are 
beyond  the  technical  training  of  combatant  troops,  or 
such  as  require  the  use  of  engineering  implements 
and  material  not  supplied  to  combatant  troops. 

Scope  of  Services, 

(a)  The  service  of  reconnaissance,  including  tac- 
tical reconnaissance,  engineering  reconnaissance,  sur- 
veying, mapping,  and  sketching,  panoramic  sketching, 
photography,  drafting,  and  map  reproduction. 

54 


ENGINEER   TROOPS   IN   THE   FIELD  55 

(b)  The  service  of  eastramentation,  including  the 
selection,  laying  out  and  preparation  of  camps,  the 
reconnaissance  and  municipal  and  sanitary  engineer- 
ing incident  thereto,  and  the  installation,  operation 
and  maintenance  of  water-supply  systems. 

(c)  The  service  of  fortifications,  pertaining  both 
to  the  attack  and  the  defense  and  including  the  selec- 
tion of  defensive  positions  when  out  of  the  presence  of 
the  enemy ;  rectification  of  and  assistance  in  the  selec- 
tion of  such  positions  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy ;  the 
location,  design  and  construction  of  the  more  import- 
ant field  works;  assistance  in  and  supervision . of  the 
construction  of  hasty  defenses  wherever  possible ;  the 
supply  of  tools  and  materials ;  and  the  reconnaissance, 
demolitions,  water-supply  and  communications  inci- 
dent thereto. 

(d)  The  service  of  sieges,  pertaining  both  to  the  at- 
tack and  defense  and  including  the  selection  and  loca- 
tion of  defensive  lines,  lines  of  investment  and  siege 
works,  the  construction  of  saps,  mines  and  counter- 
mines ;  the  operation  of  search-lights ;  preparation  for 
and  assistance  in  attacks,  counter  attacks  and  sorties; 
organization  of  captured  points;  and  the  supply  of 
tools  and  materials. 

(e)  The  service  of  demolitions,  including  the  car- 
rying out  of  all  work  of  this  nature  authorized  by  the 
commander  and  not  within  the  scope  of  other  troops. 

(f )  The  service  of  battlefield  illumination,  includ- 
ing the  supply  and  operation  of  search-lights  and  other 
means  of  battlefield  illumination. 

(g)  The  service  of  general  construction,  including 
the  location,  design  and  construction  of  wharves,  piers, 
landings,  storehouses,  hospitals  and  other  structures  of 
general  utility  in  the  theater  of  operations. 

(h)  The  service  of  communications,  including  the 
construction,  maintenance  and  repair  of  roads,  ferries, 
bridges  and  incidental  structures;  the  selection  and 


56  PREPAREDNESS   AND  THE  ENGINEER 

preparation  of  fords;  the  construction,  maintenance 
and  operation  of  railways  under  military  control,  and 
the  construction  and  operation  of  armored  trains. 

(i)  Special  services,  including  all  municipal,  sani- 
tary and  other  public  work  of  an  engineering  nature 
which  may  be  required  in  territory  under  military 
control. 

The  services  in  the  above  list  are  executed  under  the 
supervision  of  engineer  officers  by  engineer  troops,  by 
details  from  other  troops,  by  civilian  labor  or  by  any 
combination  of  these  means  as  the  particular  circum- 
stances may  require. 

Time  is  usually  all  important  and  labor  is  plentiful, 
and  wherever  the  labor  of  other  troops  can  be  profit- 
ably used  such  troops  should  be  provided  promptly  and 
used  freely,  the  tools  of  the  engineer  train  being 
brought  up  for  this  purpose. 

ORGANIZATION. 

The  engineer  troops  and  equipment  of  a  division 
consist  of  a  regiment  of  engineers  (two  battalions 
of  three  companies  each),  and  an  engineer  train  with 
supply  section,  searchlight  section  and  ponton  section. 
The  war  strength  of  a  regiment  of  engineers  is  1,098 
officers  and  men  and  453  animals,  exclusive  of  the 
engineer  train.     (See  Appendix  III.) 

An  infantry  division  numbers  about  28,000  so  that 
the  engineers  form  about  four  per  cent  of  the  combat- 
ant troops,  which  is  somewhat  less  than  the  propor- 
tion considered  necessary  in  foreign  practice.  This 
proportion  may  be  increased  by  assigning  additional 
engineers  to  the  field  army. 

An  engineer  company  (foot)  consists  of  foiir  offi- 
cers, mounted,  and  164  enlisted  men,  of  whom  36 
are  mounted,  as  follows: 


ENGINEER  TROOPS   IN   THE   FIELD  57 


1  captain, 

mounted 

2  first  lieutenants, 

mounted 

1  second  lieutenant, 

mounted 

1  first  sergeant. 

3  sergeants,  first  class, 

1  mounted 

1  sergeant,  mess, 

1  sergeant,  supply. 

1  sergeant,  stable, 

mounted 

8  sergeants, 

1  mounted 

18  corporals, 

4  mounted 

1  horseshoer, 

mounted 

1  saddler, 

mounted 

3  cooks. 

1  mounted 

2  buglers, 

31  privates,  first  class. 

8  mounted 

93  privates, 

18  mounted 

4   wagoners    (teamsters),   only 

when   company   is 

acting  alone.    Otherwise  all  wagoners  are  attached  to 

the  regimental  headquarters  detachment. 

EQUIPMENT. 

The  following  is  the  combat  train  of  each  company : 
Two  wagons  containing  instruments,  tools,  tackle, 
explosives  and  supplies.  (Mainly  for  the  foot  troops 
of  the  company.)  Practically  identical  loads  on  each. 
Eight  pack  mules,  with  two  demolition  packs,  three 
packs  of  tools,  tackle  and  supplies,  and  three  packs  of 
grain,  rations,  additional  tools  or  explosives.  (Mainly 
for  the  mounted  detachment  of  the  company.)  It  will 
be  observed  that  each  company  is  so  organized  and 
equipped  that  it  can  provide  the  following  working 
parties : 

(a)  The  small  parties  necessary  for  demolitions, 
sketching,  mapping,  etc. 

(b)  A  mounted  detachment,  especially  provided 
for  work  at  a  distance  from  the  foot  portion  of  the 
company. 


58  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

(c)  Two  almost  identical  foot  detachments  of  from 
50  to  65  men.  In  addition  to  the  equipment  carried 
in  the  combat  trains  of  the  companies  there  is  the  fol- 
lowing equipment: 

(a)  Battalion  combat  train. 

1  wagon   (blacksmith  equipment), 

(b)  Regimental  comhat  train. 

1  wagon  (map  reproduction  equipment). 
1  spring  tool  wagon   (surveying,  drafting, 
photo    and    reconnaissance     equipment 

(c)  The  Engineer  Train. 

(1)  Ten  wagons,  one  for  each  infantry  and  cav- 
alry regiment  of  the  division,  carrying  reserve  en- 
trenching tools,  as  follows : 

260  Axes.  4,500  Sand  Bags. 

70  Crowbars.  130  Hand  Saws. 

1,000  lbs.  Nails.  130  Saws,  two-man. 

1,500  Pick  Mattocks.  3,000  Shovels. 

250  lbs.  Wire,  smooth.  Tool  Sharpeners,  etc. 

(2)  4  wagons,  ammunition  for  Engineer  regiment. 

(3)  Searchlight  Section,   6  power,  6  light  units. 

(4)  Ponton  Section,  two  divisions  (450  feet)  re- 
serve (wooden)  bridge  equipage.  Details  from  the  En- 
gineer regiment  construct  bridges  with  this  equipage. 

DETAILED  DUTIES. 

On  the  March,  engineer  troops  verify,  correct,  and 
amplify  existing  maps  or  prepare  and  reproduce  road 
sketches  in  the  absence  of  other  maps.  They  examine 
routes  and  local  resources  with  a  view  to  their  utiliza- 
tion. They  mark  roads  and  furnish  guides  when  nec- 
essary. In  an  advance  they  remove  obstacles,  and  in 
a  retreat  they  place  obstacles  to  check  the  advance  of 
the  enemy.  They  execute  demolitions,  especially  in  a 
retreat,  and  destroy  materials,  stores,  and  natural  re- 
sources whenever  so  ordered.  They  prepare  roads, 
bridges,  fords,  and  ferries,  and  strengthen  structures, 


ENGINEER   TROOPS   IN   THE  FIELD  59 

make  repairs,  or  build  entirely  new  ways  of  communi- 
cation and  assist  the  artillery  and  heavy  vehicles  in 
difficult  places.  They  prepare  photographs  to  supple- 
ment reconnaissance  and  records. 

The  Advance,  Regardless  of  the  character  of  the 
march,  delays  are  always  to  be  expected  either  from 
the  enemy  and  his  activities  or  from  bad  roads,  acci- 
dents to  road  structures,  or  from  some  other  cause, 
and  the  troops,  to  make  the  way  clear  and  expedite  the 
march,  ought,  unless  other  considerations  forbid,  to  be 
near  the  head  of  the  column  to  attack  the  obstruction 
as  soon  as  it  is  discovered  and  obviate  the  delay  inci- 
dent to  bringing  them  and  their  combat  train  up  from 
the  rear  along  a  road  encumbered  with  other  troops 
and  vehicles.  Therefore  a  working  unit  of  engineers, 
preferably  a  company,  should  be  at  the  head  of  the 
column  and  should  form  a  part  of  the  support  of  the 
advance  guard. 

The  Retreat,  In  a  retreat  there  is  always  the  pre- 
sumption of  a  pursuit  by  the  enemy,  and  the  dispo- 
sition of  the  engineers  might  be  about  as  follows  for 
a  division  marching  on  a  single  road: 

1  battalion,  ahead  of  the  trains. 

2  companies,  at  the  head  of  the  leading  troops. 
1  company,  as  part  of  the  rear  guard. 

This  disposition  is  merely  a  suggestion  and  not  a 
type  formation. 

The  duty  of  the  first  body  is  to  insure  that  the  road 
is  open  and  the  way  clear  and  that  of  the  second  to  see 
that  these  conditions  are  maintained.  The  duty  of  the 
third,  in  addition  to  assisting  in  the  conduct  of  the 
retreat,  is  to  delay  the  advance  of  the  pursuing  force 
by  placing  obstructions  along  the  route  or  routes  and 
by  actual  combat  when  necessary.  The  main  part  of 
this  company  will  be  with  the  reserve  of  the  rear  guard 
and  will  prepare  bridges,  etc.,  for  demolition.  The 
mounted  detachment  will  be  with  but  ordinarily  will 


60  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

not  form  a  part  of  the  rear  cavalry.  Their  function 
is  to  make  the  demolitions  after  all  the  troops  have 
passed,  and  then  by  means  of  their  mounts  rejoin  the 
rear  party  and  repeat  the  operation.  If  the  road  is 
to  be  obstructed  by  fallen  trees  and  other  such  ob- 
stacles, the  main  part  of  this  company  may  fall  farther 
to  the  rear  than  above  indicated. 

The  Attack.  In  the  attack,  the  engineers  reconnoiter 
for  and  facilitate  the  advance  of  the  other  troops  by 
repairing  and  constructing  roads,  bridges,  and  ferries, 
improving  fords,  and  making  clearings  to  facilitate 
communication  and  deployment.  Engineer  troops  ac- 
company the  attacking  line  for  the  purpose  of  destroy- 
ing and  clearing  away  obstacles,  destroying  hostile 
mines,  organizing  captured  positions,  and  for  destroy- 
ing guns,  works,  and  stores  which  can  not  be  held. 
They  assist  in  clearing  the  field  of  fire  for  the  artillery 
and  in  arranging  for  observation  of  fire,  including  the 
construction  of  high  observing  stations.  They  destroy 
or  blockade  ways  of  communication  to  guard  against 
flank  attacks.  They  supply  tools  to  troops  taking  up  a 
position  in  a  deliberate  attack  and  assist  in  the  prep- 
aration of  fortified  portions  of  the  line.  They  are 
specially  concerned  with  the  construction  of  support- 
ing points  to  check  temporary  reverses,  works  to  guard 
against  counter  attack  on  the  flanks,  and  works  of  gen- 
eral interest,  such  as  dressing  stations,  ways  of  com- 
munication, and  the  like.  They  give  assistance  to  the 
artillery  for  the  advance  preparation  of  new  positions, 
so  that  the  artillery  may  move  from  one  position  to 
another  with  the  least  loss  of  time.  They  operate 
searchlights  or  other  means  of  illumination  used  in 
night  attacks ;  they  mark  roads  and  trails  leading  along 
the  positions,  and,  if  necessary,  supply  guides;  they 
make  the  engineer  reconnaissance  to  locate  and  pro- 
cure tools  and  materials  and  otherwise  utilize  available 
local  resources  to  the  fullest  extent;  they  will  make 


ENGINEER   TROOPS   IN   THE   FIELD  61 

and  reproduce  such  position  and  place  sketches,  photo- 
graphic views  and  panoramic  sketches  of  hostile  lines 
as  may  be  practicable.  Engineer  troops  will  be  used 
on  the  firing  line  whenever  it  is  desirable  to  bring  all 
available  rifles  into  action,  or  when  their  position  is 
such  that  they  can  render  the  most  effective  service 
by  fire  action. 

The  combat  train  advances  with  the  companies  as 
far  and  as  rapidly  as  possible,  so  that  tools  and  sup- 
plies shall  always  be  near  at  hand;  but  they  should 
be  halted  off  the  road  when  they  can  no  longer  advance 
and  should  never  be  allowed  to  delay  the  advance  of 
the  troops. 

If  the  attack  encounter  fortified  positions,  the  engi- 
neers are  used  in  the  firing  line  to  destroy  obstacles  or 
mines,  to  handle  grenades,  to  accompany  and  assist  the 
brigade  commander  in  reconnaissance  of  the  hostile 
position,  and  assist  in  organizing  captured  positions 
against  counter  attacks. 

The  strength  of  the  enemy's  fortifications  will  de- 
termine the  rate  of  advance,  and  the  slower  the  advance 
the  greater  will  become  the  usefulness  of  the  engineer 
troops.  The  operation  of  searchlights  and  other  means 
of  battlefield  illumination  will  be  employed  in  pro- 
tracted attacks,  and  the  illumination  of  roads,  etc.,  will 
be  required. 

The  Defense.  On  the  defense  the  engineers  assist  in 
clearing  the  foreground,  placing  obstacles,  and  deter- 
mining and  marking  ranges,  and  are  specially  con- 
cerned in  the  construction  of  works  of  general  interest, 
including  dummy  trenches,  bomb  proof  and  splinter 
proof  overhead  covers,  screens,  dressing  stations,  ob- 
servation stations,  and  supporting  points.  They  assist 
in  preparing  woods,  houses,  and  villages  for  defense, 
and  in  repairing  damaged  w^orks.  They  operate  search- 
lights and  other  means  of  illumination.  They  destroy 
or  blockade  ways  of  communication  and  destroy  stores 


62  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

and  other  resources  or  structures  that  may  be  useful 
to  the  enemy  and  are  certain  to  fall  into  his  hands. 
They  prepare  land  mines,  fougasses,  and  grenades. 
They  distribute  the  tools  to  troops  taking  up  positions, 
prepare  positions  fortified  in  advance  of  their  occupa- 
tion, and  supervise  civilian  working  parties  on  such 
lines.  As  in  the  attack,  they  improve  or  construct  roads 
and  other  ways  of  communication,  including  field  rail- 
ways, and  facilitate  the  movement  of  troops  and  sup- 
plies throughout  the  entire  position.  They  will  make 
such  sketches  and. reproduce  such  photographic  views 
as  may  be  practical.  They  make  the  engineer  recon- 
naissance to  locate  and  procure  tools  and  materials  and 
other  local  resources. 

Their  numbers  prohibit  them  from  doing  all  the 
clearing  or  all  the  entrenching,  even  if  such  were  other- 
wise desirable.  They  assist  in  laying  out  and  construct- 
ing the  trenches,  obstacles,  overhead  cover,  dummy 
trenches,  etc.,  and  in  clearing  the  foreground  and  con- 
cealing the  position. 

Sieges.  In  sieges  engineer  troops  have  the  same 
duties  as  in  an  attack  or  in  a  defense,  according  to 
whether  they  are  besieged  or  besieging.  They  have  also 
the  duties  required  of  them  in  camps,  and  are  specially 
charged  with  the  location  and  construction  of  siege 
batteries,  parallels,  approaches,  mines  and  counter- 
mines and  obstacles.  They  prepare  for  and  assist  in 
assaults  and  sorties,  destroy  obstacles,  hostile  mines 
and  works,  and  prepare  captured  positions  for  de- 
fense. 

Prior  to  assaults  or  night  attacks  the  ground  to  be 
passed  over  should  be  carefully  reconnoitered  and 
mapped,  if  practicable,  and  engineer  officers  should 
act  as  guides  to  the  attacking  troops.  The  columns 
should  be  accompanied  by  engineer  troops  with  the 
necessary  tools  and  equipment  to  assist  the  advance 
and  to  strengthen  any  position  captured. 


ENGINEER  TROOPS  IN  THE  FIELD  63 

In  Camp  (not  short  halts  or  bivouacs)  the  engineers 
lay  out  the  camp  and  make  the  necessary  surveys  or 
sketches  of  the  camp  and  outpost  and  reproduce  maps 
for  the  command.  They  prepare  and  mark  the  water- 
ing places  and  may  be  called  upon  to  install  the  water 
supply.  They  construct  the  main  drainage  system  for 
permanent  camps  and  other  works  of  sanitation  re- 
quiring special  skill  or  equipment.  They  assist  in  the 
construction  of  shelters.  When  the  camp  is  fortified 
the  engineer  troops  have  the  same  duties  as  in  a  de- 
fensive position.  They  carry  out  such  demolitions  as 
may  be  required.  They  repair  roads  and  bridges,  con- 
structing such  new  ones  as  may  be  required,  and  pre- 
pare the  terminal  facilities,  both  by  rail  and  water, 
and  mark  the  routes  of  communication  and  deployment 
and  construct  and  operate  portable  railways.  They 
construct  buildings  of  general  interest  and  such  other 
engineering  works  as  may  be  required  of  them.  They 
also  do  such  photographic  work  as  may  be  required, 
and  make  special  examination  of  the  terrain  with  a 
view  to  engineer  work  and  the  utilization  of  local 
resources. 

A  single  regiment  cannot  do  all  the  technical  work 
in  a  camp  as  rapidly  as  its  completion  is  desired,  but 
by  using  the  engineer  troops  for  such  work  only  and 
giving  them  such  assistance  in  unskilled  labor  as  may 
be  required,  the  rapidity  with  which  roads,  drains, 
huts,  buildings,  etc.,  can  be  constructed  is  surprising. 
"The  ordinary  guard,  police,  and  fatigue  work  for  the 
general  camp  and  all  other  details  not  requiring  tech- 
nical skill  nor  equipment  should  be  made  from  other 
troops  and  details  from  the  engineer  troops  should  be 
confined  to  such  duties  as  make  use  of  their  special 
training  and  equipment.  When  practicable  the  engi- 
neer troops  should  be  sent  to  the  camp  site  well  in 
advance  of  the  other  troops,  except  signal  and  quarter- 
master troops. 


VII. 
FIRE  ACTION. 

To  comprehend  the  subject  of  field  fortifications  it 
is  necessary  to  know  and  understand  the  effect  of  fire 
both  from  small  arms  and  artillery,  destructive  forces 
quite  different  in  action  from  those  against  which  the 
engineer  must  ordinarily  protect  his  works. 

To  shoot  straight,  to  direct  a  projectile  true  to  its 
intended  mark,  is  a  feat  of  engineering  just  as  much 
as  the  true  pointing  of  a  theodolite  in  a  geodetic  sur- 
vey, and  one  performed  under  vastly  more  difficult 
conditions:  great  personal  danger,  unknown  range  or 
windage,  and  no  system  of  least  squares  that  has  yet 
been  invented  to  ** adjust"  a  wide  shot  after  it  is  fired, 
even  if  the  source  and  amount  of  error  is  known.  It 
is  the  belief  of  many  that  proficiency  in  rifle  shooting 
comes  only  with  actual  practice  in  firing,  and  that 
only  men  with  keen  eyesight  and  iron  nerve  can  hope 
to  become  expert  riflemen. 

As  a  m^atter  of  fact,  most  riflemen  of  the  writer's 
acquaintance  have  probably  less  than  normal  eyesight. 
Most  of  them  wear  glasses  in  shooting.  It  is  not  the 
eyesight,  but  the  manner  of  using  it  which  counts,  and 
the  modern  holds  with  the  sling  will  correct  any 
tendency  towards  unsteadiness  due  to  nerves. 

Uifle  Instruction.  It  is  easy  to  comprehend  that  a 
man  of  intelligence,  instructed  as  to  reading  a  vernier, 
as  to  ^^ bisecting''  a  target,  and  in  the  mechanism  of 
the  transit,  tangent  screws,  etc.,  might  make  a  very, 
creditable  reading  of  an  angle  at  his  first  trial.  Upon 
this  fact  is  based  the  system  of  training  in  Company  D, 
an  intensive  system  by  which  we  claim  to  make  a  good 
shot  of  a  man  before  he  ever  fires  his  rifle. 

Marksmanship  embraces  the  following  principles: 
knowledge  of  the  rifle,  of  sight  setting,  sighting,  and  of 
holding  the  aim  while  pulling  the  trigger. 

64 


FIRE  ACTION  65 

When  a  recruit  joins  Company  D,  an  oflficer  or  non- 
commissioned officer  gives  him  the  following  instruc- 
tion in  the  rifle: 

He  is  instructed  in  the  data  regarding  the  rifle,  its 
name,  length,  weight,  caliber,  sight  radius,  etc.,  and 
in  the  correct  nomenclature  of  the  parts. 

He  is  required  to  dismount  the  bolt  and  magazine 
mechanism  repeatedly,  and  is  instructed  in  the  proper 
manner  of  caring  for  and  cleaning  the  piece,  to  work 
always  from  the  breech  in  cleaning,  in  order  to  avoid 
injury  to  the  rifling  at  the  muzzle  and  consequent  loss 
of  accuracy. 

He  is  practiced  in  the  manipulation  of  the  rifle  by 
loading  drills  with  dummy  cartridges,  until  in  his 
hands  it  is  no  longer  a  source  of  danger  to  himself  or 
^'innocent  bystanders." 

The  recruit  is  next  shown  how  to  use  the  sights. 
Enlarged  patterns  of  the  sights  are  cut  from  sheet 
brass,  and  mounted  by  hinges  on  a  wooden  bar.  An 
additional  hinged  flap,  cantaining  a  small  pin  hole,  is 
mounted  at  the  eye  end  of  the  bar.  The  pin  hole  is  on 
the  line  of  the  center  of  the  rear  sight  and  the  top  of 
the  front  sight,  so  that  in  looking  through  it  the  rear 
and  front  sights  always  appear  in  perfect  alignment. 

n       l/ne         a    o^     [a]  '5/grhf rr— - 

PJn  ho/e         Batf/e  si^ht   Peeps/^ht  qpe/f  s/y/rf  front  si^ht  \ 

Une    \      '      \        n^.-^^^  y^  ^'3^^ Wi 

7?^  H  Target 

FIG.    1.      BAR  FOR   INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   USE   OF   SIGHTS 

First  Exercise,  The  instructor  sets  the  sights,  peep, 
open  or  battle-sight,  on  a  target  across  the  room.   The 


66  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

recruit,  looking  through  the  pin  hole,  sees  the  rear  and 
front  sight  and  the  bullseye  in  proper  alignment.  The 
bar  is  then  moved  and  he  is  required  to  reset  on  the 
target,  using  the  adjusting  screws. 

Second  Exercise,  The  pin  hole  flap  is  turned  down 
out  of  the  way,  and  the  recruit  is  required  to  align  the 
sights  and  bullseye,  centering  the  front  sight  in  the 
rear  peep  or  notch  as  well  as  he  can.  He  checks  the 
result  by  turning  up  the  rear  flap  and  looking  through 
the  pin  hole.  Any  error  in  ''centering"  the  front 
sight  now  shows  clearly.  The  instructor  can  also  see 
the  amount  and  direction  of  the  error  and  take  steps 
to  correct  it. 

Third  Exercise.  This  apparatus  may  also  be  used 
to  illustrate  the  importance  of  fixing  the  eye  on  the 
target  instead  of  on  the  front  sight.  The  target  is 
covered  and  the  recruit  directed  to  gaze  intently  at  the 
front  sight.  The  target  is  now  uncovered  and  is  seen 
indistinctly,  as  his  eye  is  out  of  focus.  The  front  and 
rear  sights  are  then  laid  down,  and  his  eye,  looking 
through  the  pin  hole,  i«  focussed  on  the  target.  When 
the  sights  are  raised,  he  finds  that  he  can,  still  looking 
intently  at  the  bullseye,  see  through  and  over  the 
sights  and  tell  when  they  are  correctly  aligned,  with- 
out gating  directly  at  them. 

The  positions  are  then  demonstrated,  with  explana- 
tions of  the  reasons  for  each  detail,  and  the  sling  hold 
is  illustrated  and  insisted  upon  for  each  man. 

For  instance,  in  the  kneeling  position,  the  weight 
rests  on  three  points :  the  sole  of  the  left  foot,  the 
right  knee  and  the  right  toe.  For  steadiness,  these 
three  points  must  be  as  widely  separated  as  possible, 
preferably  at  the  vertices  of  an  equilateral  triangle, 
similar  to  a  tripod.  The  left  foot  points  towards  the 
target,  the  heel  well  forward  so  that  the  leg  below  the 
knee  is  vertical.  The- right  leg  rests  squarely  across 
the  line  of  fire.    If  the  left  heel  is  drawn  back,  the  body 


FIRE  ACTION  67 

will  rock  backwards  and  forwards  and  the  sights  will 
move  vertically  on  the  target.  If  the  right  knee  is 
brought  close  to  the  left  heel,  the  right  leg  pointing  to 
the  rear,  the  body  will  sway  from  side  to  side,  and  the 
sights  will  move  horizontally  on  the  target.  The  left 
elbow,  supporting  the  rifle,  must  hang  over  the  left 
knee-cap.  A  trial  at  supporting  the  elbow  on  top  of 
the  knee  will  show  the  unsteadiness  of  this  position. 

The  use  of  the.  sling  is  advocated  as  it  steadies  the 
aim,  assists  the  '  ^  hold ' '  while  pulling  the  trigger,  and 
tends  to  minimize  the  recoil. 

Similar  instruction  is  given  regarding  other  firing 
positions. 

He  is  now  prepared  to  shoot,  but  in  order  to  co- 
ordinate all  that  he  has  learned  regarding  the  manipu- 
lation of  the  rifle,  positions  and  sighting,  without  pre- 
liminary waste  of  ammunition,  and  to  prevent  de- 
veloping flinching  or  gun-shyness  from  the  recoil  and 
report,  there  is  yet  another  step  by  which  he  may 
apply  all  that  he  has  learned  and  actually  take  his 
position,  aim,  hold,  fire,  and  **call  his  shot/'  before 
going  upon  the  range. 

The  Hollafield  Rod  consists  of  a  brass  tube  which 
fits  in  the  bore  of  the  rifle  and  contains  a  m,ovable 
plunger  or  needle,  sharpened  at  the  outer  end.  This 
needle,  held  in  place  by  a  spring,  rests  down  upon  the 
firing  pin,  which,  when  the  trigger  is  pulled,  drives 
the  needle  out  about  six  inches  in  front  of  the  muzzle, 
from  which  position  it  is  immediately  returned  by  the 
spring.  A  double  target  is  used,  the  vertical  distance 
between  the  bullseyes  being  equal  to  that  from  the  tip 
of  the  front  sight  to  the  center  of  the  bore.     (Fig.  2.) 

The  needle  will  puncture  the  lower  target  at  the 
corresponding  point  to  that  on  the  upper  target  which 
is  covered  by  the  sights  at  the  instant  of  firing.  The 
targets  are  reduced  in  size  so  as  to  subtend  the  same 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


visual  angle  at  six  inches  in  front  of  the  muzzle  as  a 
standard  target  at  the  regulation  range. 


Line  of  Sight    ^ 


□ 


ilH 


Line  of 
Action 


FIG.    2.      THE    HOLLAFIELD    ROD 


By  using  a  shorter  rod,  and  placing  in  the  chamber 
of  the  rifle  a  dummy  cartridge  containing  a  movable 
plunger,  the  method  of  loading  may  be  practiced.  The 
firing  pin  strikes  the  plunger  in  the  cartridge,  which 
passes  the  blow  on  to  the  needle  of  the  Hollafield  Rod 
and  operates  it  as  before.  These  cartridges  may  be 
loaded  into  the  rifle  by  clips,  the  same  as  service  am- 
munition, and  rapid  or  magazine  fire  may  be  simulated 
in  all  respects  except  as  to  the  recoil  and  report. 

The  recruit  is  now  ready  for  the  range,  the  foregoing 
instruction  having  occupied  about  two  or  three  hours, 
depending  upon  his  adaptability.  He  is  familiar  with 
all  except  the  recoil  and  the  report,  and  on  the  indoor 
range  the  former  is  missing,  owing  to  the  reduced 
charges  used.  However,  cases  of  flinching  do  occur, 
and  are  usually  corrected  by  the  instructor's  loading 
the  man's  rifle  for  him,  sometimes  with  an  empty  shell, 
so  that  he  never  knows  in  pulling  the  trigger  whether 
or  not  the  gun  will  go  off.  Flinching  is  caused  by  an- 
ticipating the  report.  The  report  itself  may  cause  a 
man  to  jump,  but  it  is  then  too  late  to  deflect  the 
bullet.    The  practice  of  calling  the  shot,  i.  e.,  calling 


FIRE  ACTION 


69 


out  where  the  shot  has  struck  judging  from  the  point 
covered  by  the  sights  at  the  instant  of  firing,  will  us- 
ually fix  the  attention  and  prevent  shutting  the  eyes 
or  flinching.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  call 
the  position  of  the  sights  when  ieginning  the  trigger 
pull,  as  this  is  liable  to  vary  greatly  from  their  position 
on  firing. 

For  describing  the  position  of  hits  on  the  target,  a 
simple  clock-face  nomenclature  is  used.  In  Fig.  3,  a 
hit  at  (1)  is  described  as  a  hullseye,  pinwheel,  at  (2),  a 

Target  B 


FIG.   3.      TARGET   NOMENCLATURE 


70  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

hullseye,  half  in  at  ten  o^ clock,  at  (3),  a  four,  hanging 
on  at  five  o'clock,  at  (4)  a  three  half  out  at  seven 
o'clock,  and  at  (5)  a  two  just  out  at  one-thirty. 

Outdoor  Firing.  A  similar  nomenclature  is  adopted 
to  describe  the  direction  of  the  wind.  (Fig.  4.)  The 
clock-face  is  supposed  to  lie  on  the  ground,  the  XII 
pointing  toward  the  target.  A  head  wind  is  a  twelve 
o'clock  wind,  one  from  the  right  is  a  three  o'clock 
wind,  and  one  blowing  towards  the  target  is  a  six 
o'clock  wind.  1,  5,  7  and  11  o'clock  winds  require  half 
the  correction,  and  2,  4,  8  and  10  o'clock  winds  about 
the  same  correction,  as  one  from  3  or  9  o'clock.  A 
wind  which  changes  direction  continually  from  one 


Tari 


^e/^s 


/> 

a 

A 

f7 

A 

W 

■< ^ ^^ 

w 

V 

\^ 

E.^ 

>/ 

^F/rin^  Po/nf. 


FIG.  4.      WIND  NOMENCLATURE 


FIRE  ACTION  71 

hand  to  another,  say  from  10  to  2  o'clock,  as  frequently 
happens  when  the  targets  are  placed  against  a  hill  as 
a  back-stop,  is  known  as  a  fish-tail  wind. 

Outdoor  firing  brings  into  play  factors  hitherto  un- 
known: wind,  mirage  and  the  varying  effects  of  light 
and  shade.  Shooting  ceases  to  be  mechanical  and  be- 
comes a  matter  of  skill  and  judgment  in  estimating 
and  correcting  for  conditions  which  may  not  be  twice 
alike.  The  windage  correction  may  vary  between 
shots  from  three-quarters  of  a  point  right  to  the  same 
to  the  left  in  a  fish-tail  wind,  and  the  mere  passing  of 
a  cloud  over  a  target  previously  bright  may  make  a 
difference  of  fifty  yards  in  elevation  at  six  hundred 
yards. 

By  his  previous  instruction  and  practice  the  recruit 
is  supposed  to  have  learned  to  aim,  hold  and  pull  cor- 
rectly, and  above  all  to  have  confidence  in  his  hold,  in 
other  words  to  be  able  to  call  his  shot  with  certainty. 
Unless  he  can  do  this,  he  cannot  be  sure  whether  a  poor 
shot  was  caused  by  incorrect  adjustment  of  the  sights 
or  a  bad  pull.  The  man  who  is  confident  that  his  hold 
should  have  given  him  a  bullseye,  but  who  gets  a  three 
half  out  at  five  o'clock^  may  change  his  sight  setting 
with  certainty  that,  conditions  being  the  same,  his  next 
shot  will  strike  where  he  aims. 

Mirage,  the  heat  waves  that  are  so  annoying  to  the 
surveyor,  may  be  of  great  assistance  to  the  rifleman. 
By  focussing  a  telescope  just  short  of  the  targets  these 
waves  may  be  seen  running  across  the  field  like  the 
current  of  a  river.  They  give  the  direction  of  the 
wind,  sometimes  quite  different  from  that  felt  at  the 
firing  point,  and  show  sudden  changes  which  would 
otherwise  be  unnoticed  except  by  their  effect  upon  the 
shots.  From  their  speed,  estimated  in  miles  per  hour, 
the  range  rule,  Velocity  x  Range/40,  gives  the  windage 
correction,  to  be  applied  against  the  wind,  i.  e.,  the 
wind  gage  must  be  moved  to  the  right  to  counteract  a 


72 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


wind  from  that  direction.    At  600  yards,  according  to 
this  rule,   a  10-mile  wind  requires  a  correction  of 

10  X  6 

=  1%  points  on  the  wind  gage. 

40 
One  point  on  the  wind  gage  subtends  a  horizontal 
distance  of  four  inches  on  the  target  for  each  hundred 
yards  of  the  range.  At  600  yards  a  change  of  li/^ 
points  varies  the  position  of  the  hit  by  6  x  4  x  li^  =  36 
inches.  Therefore  a  ten-mile  wind  at  600  yards  would 
be  sufficient  to  cause  a  shot  fired  without  correction  to 
miss  or  just  strike  the  edge  of  the  target  (72  x  72 
inches).    Pig  5  shows  the  correction  scales,  both  for 


Target  B-600  Yards 
^ 


/aoye/s. 


W/r?^/aae 

FIG.   5.      CORRECTION  SCALES 


FIRE  ACTION  73 

elevation  and  windage,  for  the  B  target  used  at  600 
yards.  The  rule  for  the  elevation  correction  is:  a 
change  of  one  hundred  yards  in  elevation  will  raise  or 
lower  the  position  of  the  shot  by  a  number  of  inches 
equal  to  the  square  of  the  hundreds  of  yards  in  the 
range.  At  six  hundred  yards,  therefore,  a  change  of 
100  yards  in  the  sight  setting  will  change  the  elevation 
of  the  hit  by  6  X  6  =  36  inches,  half  the  height  of  the 
target.     (Fig.  5.) 

Effect  of  Small  Arms  Fire,  If  a  number  of  men  are 
firing  at  an  object,  the  best  shots  striking  it,  the  others 
missing  by  various  margins,  the  whole  sheaf  of  tra- 
jectories will  form  a  cone  about  that  of  the  best  shot 
as  an  axis.     (Fig.  6.) 


OA  -  OA'-  OA"-  Beaten 
Zone  -for  Various  Slopes. 

FIG.   6.      CONE  OF  DISPERSION 

This  is  known  as  the  cone  of  dispersion  and  its  inter- 
section with  the  ground  surface  is  the  beaten  zone. 
This  cone,  similarly  to  the  stream  from  a  fire  nozzle, 
may  be  played  over  a  field  at  the  will  of  the  com- 
mander by  his  designating  the  range  and  objective.  In 
laying  out  a  plan  of  fire  action,  each  unit,  however 
large  or  small,  must  be  assigned  its  sector  of  fire  and 
kept  to  it.  It  is  natural  for  men  to  fire  at  what  can  be 
most  clearly  seen,  and  unless  they  are  held  strictly  to 
a  portion  of  the  line  and  cover  their  own  front  thor- 
oughly, it  may  happen  that  a  section  of  the  enemy's 


74 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


line,  well  concealed  and  not  troubled  by  hostile  fire,  is 
able  to  fire  with  deadly  accuracy  and  inflict  heavy 
losses. 

Eifle  fire  which  dominates  a  certain  space  and  keeps 
the  enemy  from  occupying  it  is  just  as  effective  as  that 
which  strikes  his  men,  and  the  greater  the  space  which 
can  be  thus  occupied  by  fire  action  per  unit  volume  of 
fire,  the  more  efficient  is  that  fire. 

Suppose  we  consider  a  plane  surface  perpendicular 
to  the  axis  of  the  cone  of  dispersion.  The  least  section 
of  a  cone  is  the  circle,  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  and 
therefore  such  a  slope,  facing  towards  the  enemy,  will 
be  less  swept  by  his  fire  than  a  level  plain.    On  a  re- 


From  Low  Ground    to  High, 


?^^^5^' 


From   High  Ground    to  Low. 
FIG.    7.      FIRE    FROM    LOW    GROUND    TO    HIGH    AND    VICE 
VERSA 

verse  slope  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  cone  of  dispersion 
the  entire  surface  is  swept  by  a  grazing  fire,  and  the 
whole  slope  is  untenable  without  cover. 


FIRE  ACTION 


75 


Fig.  8  illustrates  the  term  danger  space. 
D  ^ ai-6  *  /P-c 


A 


FIG.    8.      DANGER   SPACE 

A  bullet  from  our  military  rifle  would  be  dangerous 
to  a  man  standing  throughout  its  range  up  to  700 
yards.  A  slope  which  makes  an  angle  with  the  tra- 
jectory decreases  the  danger  space,  as  when  firing 
against  a  hillside  or  from  a  height  onto  a  plain,  and 
a  reverse  slope,  parallel  to  the  trajectory  or  nearly 
so,  permits  a  grazing  fire  with  greatly  increased  dan- 
ger space. 


zl^^^y^r^s 


FIG.    9.      DEFILADE 


76 


PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 


A  defiladed  space  is  one  which  is  protected  from 
hostile  fire.  A  slope  parallel  to  the  trajectory  increases 
the  defiladed  space  formed  by  a  given  object,  while  a 
contrary  slope  decreases  it.  (Fig.  9). 

Penetration  of  Rifle  Bullet.* 


Material 

Maximum 
Penetration. 

Remarks. 

Steel  plate,  best  hard. 

1/16  inch 

At  30  yards  normal   to 

Steel    plate,    ordinary 

plate,  3/16  inch  req'd. 

mild  or  wrought  iron. 

%    inch 

3/16  inch  is  proof  at 
not  less  than  600 
yards,  unless  the  plate 
is  set  at  a  slope  of  3 
to  2,  when  3/16  inch  is 
proof  at  250  yards. 

Shingle 

6  inches 

Not  larger  than  1  inch 
ring  gauge. 

Coal,  hard 

9  inches 

Brickwork,     cement 

150  rounds  concentrated 

mortar 

9  inches 

on  one  spot  will  breach 

Brickwork,   lime   mor- 

a 9-inch  brick  wall  at 

tar  

14  inches 

200  yards. 

Chalk    

15  inches 

Sand,  confined  between 

Very  high  velocity  bul- 

boards,  or  in  sand- 

lets have  less  penetra- 

bags    

18  inches 

tion  in  sand  at  short 

Sand,  loose 

30  inches 

than       at       medium 

Hard  wood — e.  g.y  oak, 

ranges. 

with  grain 

38  inches 

Earth,  free  from  stones 

Ramming  earth  reduces 

(unrammed)    

40  inches 

its  resisting  power. 

Soft    wood — e.  ^.,    fir. 

Penetration     of     brick- 

with grain  

58  inches 

work  and  timber  is 
less  at  short  than  at 
medium  ranges. 

Clay   

60  inches 

Varies  greatly.  This  is 
maximum  for  greasy 
clay. 

Dry  Turf  or  peat 

80  inches 

♦From  British  Manual  of  Field  Engineering. 


FIRE  ACTION  77 

Artillery  fire  has  grown  to  be  a  most  important 
factor  in  modern  tactics.  With  the  great  increase  in 
volume  and  accuracy  which  has  been  developed  in  the 
present  war,  it  bids  fair  to  almost  revolutionize  battle 
tactics  and  the  art  of  fortification.  The  introduction 
of  indirect  fire  and  spotting  permits  a  battery  to  take 
up  a  position  of  comparative  safety  and  systematically 
search  out  the  landscape. 

The  battery  commander,  with  an  instrument  re- 
sembling an  engineer's  transit,  places  himself  where 
the  target,  the  guns,  and  some  other  point  visible  to 
the  gunners  can  be  seen.  The  guns  themselves  may  be 
separated  from  the  target  by  a  hill  or  other  obstacle. 
The  observer  reads  the  angle  between  the  target  and 
the  common  aiming  point.  A  simple  computation,  as- 
sisted by  tables,  gives  the  gunner  the  angle  at  which 
his  panoramic  sight  must  be  set,  so  that  when  aiming 
at  the  common  point,  his  gun  is  pointed  at  the  target. 
The  migle  of  site,  which  depends  upon  the  difference 
of  elevation  of  the  gun*  and  the  target,  also  enters  into 
the  problem,  it  being  clear  that  of  two  points  at  the 
same  distance  from  the  gun,  the  higher  will  necessitate 
a  greater  elevation  of  the  gun  to  hit  it  than  the  former. 
The  distance  from  the  guns  to  the  station  and  to  the 
target  is  triangulated  or  estimated. 

The  spotter  is  an  officer  located  near  enough  to  the 
target  to  observe  the  effect  of  the  fire.  He  is  connected 
with  the  battery  commander  by  telephone  and  corrects 
the  laying  of  the  guns  by  reporting  the  results  of  the 
shots.  He  also  picks  up  points  which  may  be  of  im- 
portance, for  instance,  a  section  of  road  which  must  be 
crossed  by  the  enemy  in  charging,  directs  the  firing 
of  a  few  ranging  shots,  until  the  target  is  struck  con- 
sistently, and  causes  the  battery  commander  to  register 
the  target  under  a  serial  number  or  letter,  together 
with  such  gun  data  (range,  azimuth,  etc.)  as  will  en- 
able him  to  again  find  the  target  without  further  sight- 


78  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

ing  shots.  The  spotter  can  at  any  time  thereafter 
sweep  the  road  in  question  by  telephoning  to  the  bat- 
tery, ' '  Target  H,  shrapnel,  rapid  fire ' '. 

Artillery  projectiles  are  of  two  kinds;  high  explo- 
sive shell  and  shrapnel.  The  former  apparently  has  no 
limit  to  its  destruetiveness,  and  no  structure  can  long 
withstand  it.  The  Eussians  on  203-Meter  Hill  found 
that  12  feet  of  earth  over  their  bomb-proofs  was  in- 
sufficient protection  from  the  shells  of  the  Japanese 
11-inch  siege  mortars.  A  projectile  from  a  12-inch 
U.  S.  coast-defense  mortar,  fired  inland,  has  been 
known  to  penetrate  30  feet  in  natural  compact  earth 
before  exploding.  Fortunately  guns  of  this  size  are 
few  and  are  generally  available  against  selected  points 
only,  and  therefore  would  not  be  used  for  the  bom- 
bardment of  long  lines  of  field-works.  A  parapet  thick- 
ness of  12  to  15  feet  of  earth  and  overhead  covier  of 
about  six  feet  will  protect  against  ordinary  explosive 
shell  from  field  pieces,  unless  the  bombardment  be  con- 
centrated or  long  continued. 

Shrapnel  is  used  mainly  against  the  personnel  of  an 
enemy,  as  is  the  explosive  shell  against  his  material. 
At  a  range  of  3000  yards  on  level  ground  a  burst  of 
shrapnel  covers  an  approximate  ellipse  about  20  yards 
by  150  yards,  or  2350  square  yards,  the  longer  dimen- 
sion lying  from  front  to  rear.  (Fig.  10.)  The  dis- 
tribution of  the  bullets  and  fragments,  or  splinters^ 
over  this  area  is  not  uniform,  the  end  nearest  the 
enemy  receiving  the  greatest  number.  The  major  axis 
of  the  beaten  zone  decreases  with  a  greater  or  a  less 
range.  It  also  decreases  as  the  slope  is  tilted  towards 
the  enemy,  and  increases  on  a  reverse  slope,  similarly  to 
the  beaten  zone  of  rifle  fire.  Its  width  remains  un- 
changed except  as  affected  by  the  height  of  the  burst. 
Shrapnel  splinters  and  bullets  cause  badly  lacerated 
wounds,  but  they  will  not  penetrate  a  steel  helmet,  the 
pack  on  a  man's  back,  nor  a  six-inch  layer  of  well- 


FIRE    ACTION 


79 


compacted  earth  as  overhead  cover.  Troops  well  en- 
trenched have  nothing  to  fear  from  shrapnel.  The 
angle  of  fall  of  shrapnel  bullets  is  so  steep,  18  degrees 


FIG.   10.      A  BURST  OF   SHRAPNEL 


with  the  horizontal,  that  any  trench  designed  to  resist 
it  must  be  deep  and  narrow,  or  must  be  provided  with 
some  form  of  overhead  cover. 

Against  entrenched  troops  shrapnel  is  not  effective, 
and  high  explosive  shell  must  be  used  to  demolish  the 
works  and  get  at  the  men.  In  Europe  it  has  been 
found  that  men  are  killed  by  the  back  blast  of  a 
shell,  without  being  touched  by  its  fragments.  This 
is  guarded  against  by  throwing  up  an  embankment 
in  the  rear  as  well  as  in  front  of  the  trench. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FIELD  FORTIFICATIONS. 

Fortifications  are  defined  as  ^'any  engineering  de-. 
vices  for  increasing  the  fighting  power  of  troops  in  the 
field.''  That  which  protects  our  troops  from  the 
enemy 's  fire,  or  simply  conceals  them,  which  assists  our 
maneuvers  and  communications,  or  hinders  and  ob- 
structs his,  which  is  useful  to  us  or  destroys  what  is 
useful  to  him,  will  increase  our  fighting  power.  In- 
trenchments,  screens  or  blinds,  obstacles,  communi- 
cating trenches,  mines  and  demolitions,  all  come  under 
the  head  of  fortifications.  Of  these,  by  far  the  most 
important  are  those  which  afford  protection  from  the 
enemy 's  fire  and  incidentally  provide  concealment  and 
means  of  intercommunication.  The  term  fortification, 
as  usually  employed,  refers  to  works  of  this  character 
only. 

Field  works  may  be  considered  as  to : 

1.  Location,  or  siting. 

2.  Trace,  or  ground  plan. 

3.  Construction. 

4.  Concealment. 

LOCATION  OF  FIELD  WORKS. 

The  location  of  trenches  is  affected  by:  first,  the 
general  line  to  be  occupied,  second,  tactical  considera- 
tions and  features  of  the  terrain. 

The  general  line  to  be  held  is  determined  by  the 
commander  of  the  field  forces,  and  depends  upon  stra- 
tegical considerations.  Subordinate  commanders  may 
exercise  considerable  latitude  in  the  local  siting  of 
works,  so  long  as  they  do  not  depart  from  the  general 

80 


FIELD    FORTIFICATIONS  81 

line,  mask  the  fire  of  other  organizations,  nor  intro- 
duce dangerous  salients  or  re-entrant  angles  into  the 
line. 

Troops  who  will  occupy  a  line  of  trenches,  therefore, 
endeavor  to  fit  them  to  the  terrain,  so  as  to  provide 
concealment,  reduce  the  work  of  construction,  or  to 
augment  the  effectiveness  of  the  works.  Tactical  con- 
siderations, such  as  actual  or  potential  interference  by 
the  enemy  with  the  construction,  may  affect  the  loca- 
tion. 

Works  for  the  defense  of  a  position  should  provide 
concealment,  a  clear  field  of  fire  to  the  front,  good 
communications  to  the  rear,  and  the  flanks  must  be 
made  secure,  either  by  resting  upon  some  natural  ob- 
stacle, as  a  river,  swamp,  cliff,  etc.,  by  contact  with 
adjacent  troops,  or  by  proper  construction.  A  clear 
field  of  fire  to  the  front  was  formerly  considered  all 
important,  to  be  secured,  if  necessary,  at  the  expense 
of  all  other  considerations.  With  the  greatly  increased 
effectiveness  of  modern  artillery,  however,  it  has  been 
accepted  as  a  general  maxim  that  ^  ^  that  which  is  seen 
is  as  good  as  destroyed, '  ^  and  concealment  of  the  works 
becomes  of  prime  importance.  Improvement  of  small 
arms,  machine  guns,  and  the  wire  entanglement  render 
more  certain  the  stopping  of  an  attack  in  the  final 
100  yards.  In  this  portion  of  the  immediate  fore- 
ground, therefore,  it  is  important  that  no  part  be 
screened  from  the  fire  of  the  defense  by  vegetation, 
buildings,  or  topographical  features.  Vegetation  and 
buildings  may  be  cleared  away,  gullies  and  hollows 
filled  and  slopes  pared  down,  but  much  of  this  labor 
may  be  avoided  by  proper  selection  of  a  site.  In  Fig. 
11,  a  position  at  the  military  crest,  B,  commands  all 
the  foreground,  while  one  at  the  topographical  crest, 
A,  leaves  considerable  dead  space,  where  the  enemy 
may  collect  in  safety  and  rest  for  a  final  dash  up  the 
hill.  Furthermore,  the  latter  position  brings  the  works 


82  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

into  relief  against  the  sky,  where  they  are  plainly 
visible  to  the  enemy. 


Deac/Space 


FIG.    11.       TRENCHES    AT    MILITARY   AND 
TOPOGRAPHICAL  CREST 

But  even  the  position  at  the  military  crest  may  not 
be  the  best.  It  is  advantageous  because  of  its  command 
or  elevation,  and  the  greater  visibility  of  the  field  of 
fire  thus  secured ;  because  the  enemy  will  have  to  climb 
to  reach  it;  and  because  it  usually  offers  better  com- 
munications to  the  rear.  But  it  may  be  exposed  to 
artillery  fire  up  to  the  last  minute  of  an  attack,  without 
danger  to  the  enemy 's  infantry ;  shots  fired  from  this 
position  have  a  very  short  danger-space  and  small 
beaten  zone ;  and  if  the  military  crest  is  near  the  top, 
a  large  percentage  of  overs  may  graze  the  crest  and 
reverse  slope,  with  danger  to  the  supports  and  reserves 
in  waiting  there.  A  trench  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  B, 
Fig.  12,- affords  a  grazing  fire  to  the  front  with  a  long 
danger  space,  so  that  attacking  lines  of  infantry  cannot 
follow  one  another  closely;  the  enemy's  artillery  can- 
not support  the  attack  to  its  last  stages  without  danger 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS  83 

to  his  own  men ;  and  complete  concealment  is  usually 
easy  to  effect,  so  that  the  position  is  disclosed  only  when 
fire  is  opened  by  the  defenders.     A  line  of  dummy 


B 

FIG.  12.   TRENCHES  AT  FOOT  OF  SLOPE,  MILITARY  CREST 
AND  IN  REAR  OF  CREST 

trenches,  D,  at  the  military  or  topographical  crest  will 
tend  to  draw  the  enemy 's  artillery  fire  away  from  the 
true  position.  The  one  disadvantage  of  this  location  is 
the  communications  to  the  rear,  which  may  have  to  be 
effected  by  the  digging  of  zig-zag  trenches,  traversed 
,  so  as  to  be  safe  from  enfilade  fire.  These,  in  turn,  are 
difficult  of  concealment. 

.Some  authorities  advocate  a  double  or  multiple  line 
of  fire,  as  at  A,  B,  and  other  points  on  the  slope  to- 
wards the  enemy.  This  permits  an  increased  volume 
of  fire  per  unit  width  of  the  position,  but  the  trenches 
must  not  be  relied  upon  as  successive  lines  of  defense. 
If  the  first  line  is  carried,  its  retreating  occupants 
will  mask  the  fire  of  the  rear  trenches. 

The  plan  of  placing  trenches  in  rear  of  the  crest,  C, 
Fig.  12,  is  proposed  as  affording  a  complete  conceal- 
ment from  observers  who  could  direct  an  effective  artil- 
lery fire  upon  the  position.  This  plan,  it  is  argued, 
allows  too  much  dead  space  in  the  immediate  front,  so 
that  the  enemy  may  advance  in  perfect  security  to 
close  range  at  the  crest  of  the  hill.  Its  advocates,  how- 
ever, claim  that  fire  action  at  the  mid-ranges,  300-600 
yards,   is   impracticable   during  an  infantry   attack 


84  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

properly  supported  by  artillery,  however  clear  the  field 
of  fire,  and  that  in  this  position,  the  defenders  do  not 
suffer  from  the  preliminary  bombardment,  and  still 
have  about  100  yards  in  which  to  stop  the  enemy,  be- 
sides the  advantage  of  a  heavy  fire  at  close  range,  deliv- 
ered unexpectedly.  Experience  in  the  present  war 
appears  to  justify  this  contention. 

TRACE   OF    FIELD    V70RKS. 

The  ground  plan  of  a  work  must  be  laid  out  to  fit  the 
terrain.  Its  location  must  not  interfere  with  the  fire 
from  other  trenches,  nor  must  its  fire  be  masked  by 
their  location.  The  line  follows  roughly  the  contour, 
stepping  back  in  echelon  at  bends,  as  a  low  point  in 
the  line,  like  a  salient  angle,  particularly  invites 
attack. 

In  the  general  line  to  be  occupied,  there  will  be  cer- 
tain points  more  suited  to  strong  defensive  works  than 
others.  These  become  the  skeleton,  which  is  completed 
by  filling  the  intervals  with  connecting  trenches.  The 
plan  is  extended  by  the  construction  of  Points- 
d'Appiu,  or  supporting  points,  which  are  designed 
for  all  round  defense,  and  are  located  close  behind  the 
main  line  of  trenches,  to  offer  a  stubborn  resistance 
and  break  up  any  attack  which  may  penetrate  the 
trenches.  A  w^ork  of  this  character,  with  a  closed 
trace,  is  known  as  a  redoubt  or  ring-trench. 

When  high  parapets  were  the  rule  in  fortifications 
an  enemy  who  gained  the  protection  of  the  outer  wall 
was  about  as  safe  as  the  man  inside,  so  the  lines  were 
traced  with  projections  to  the  front  and  at  the  comers 
of  closed  works,  known  respectively  as  salients  and 
hastionSy  from  which  the  curtain,  or  line  of  connecting 
parapet,  could  be  swept  by  a  flanking  fire.  This  form 
still  survives,  changed  by  the  increased  range  of  small 
arms,  in  the  line  of  strongly  fortified  points,  connected 
by  curtains  of  fire  trenches. 


FIELD    FORTIFICATIONS 


85 


Fig.  13  shows  a  portion  of  a  company  trench  de- 
signed for  one  squad,  allowing  one  rifle  per  yard  of 
front.    The  splinter-proof  in  the  rear  is  for  the  purpose 


^ 


Night  Sentinel 
Day  Sentinel 


f  Mach.  (bun 

Emplacement 


FIG. 


SQUAD    TRENCH 


of  sheltering  the  squad,  excepting  the  sentry  or  look- 
out, during  a  shrapnel  bombardment.  In  Fig.  14  is 
shown  the  complete  company  trench  occupying  a  front 
of  about  125  yards,  with  firing,  communicating  and 
cover  trenches,  splinter  and  bomb  proofs,  and  dressing 
stations. 

The  flanks  of  a  trench  should  not  be  refused  as  in 
Fig.  15  (a).  The  men  in  this  flank  trench  lose  all  fire 
to  the  front,  are  exposed  to  enfilade,  and  are  useless 
except  in  case  of  a  flank  attack.    In  (b)  the  trenches 


PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 


-/f^cat  /es  Yar^s- 


^M'^^t  5e/7//ne/s  " 


^dmb  Proof 

FIG.    14.       COMPANY   TRENCH 


l(oi)     Incorrect. 


(b)      Correct. 
FIG.    15.      FDANK  OF  A  TRENCH 


FIELD    FORTIFICATIONS 


87 


are  stepped  back  in  echelon,  and  each  subdivision  may 
fire  to  the  front  or  towards  the  flank. 

CONSTRUCTION   OF   FIELD   WORKS. 

Parapet.  The  typical  form  of  parapet  is  shown  in 
Fig.  16,  with  the  parts  named.  This  form  is  prac- 
tically obsolete,  and  is  shown  only  to  give  the  nomen- 
clature. The  present  tendency  is  to  dispense  with  the 
ditch,  lower  or  surpress  entirely  the  parapet  to  aid 


6/ac/s    Ditch 


R=relief,   C=command,  V=vertical  cover. 

FIG.    16.      TYPICAL   PARAPET 

concealment,  and  to  deepen  and  decrease  the  width  of 
the  trench  to  afford  increased  protection  from  artillery 
fire.  The  banquette,  formerly  a  slope  up  which  field 
pieces  were  rolled  to  place  them  in  action,  is  now  con- 
structed in  steps,  as  artillery  is  no  longer  grouped 
with  the  infantry. 


88  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

In  permanent  works,  counterscarp  galleries  are 
sometimes  built  in  the  outer  wall  of  the  ditch  and  con- 
nected with  the  trench  by  tunnels  under  the  parapet. 
These  galleries  are  occupied  by  men  who  enfilade  the 
ditch  and  fire  into  the  backs  of  such  of  the  enemy  as 
penetrate  this  far.  The  position  of  the  exterior  crest 
prevents  these  men  from  firing  into  or  being  reached 
by  the  fire  of  the  defenders  in  the  trench.  A  better 
device  is  the  caponiere,  which  is  a  low  gallery  built 
transversely  across  the  ditch,  with  its  roof  slightly 
above  the  bottom  of  the  latter,  and  the  upper  part  of 
its  walls  pierced  for  rifle  fire  along  the  ditch.  This 
structure  is  directly  connected  through  the  parapet 
with  the  trench. 

The  parados  was  formerly  constructed  only  v>^hen  re- 
verse fire  was  anticipated,  as  in  closed  works,  but  the 
present  war  has  proven  it  of  great  value  in  concealing 
embrasures  and  loopholes,  through  which  otherwise 
light  would  show,  in  supplying  a  background  which 
renders  the  regular  shape  of  the  parapet  less  conspic- 
uous, and  in  protecting  the  occupants  from  the  blast 
of  high  explosive  shell  bursting  just  in  rear.  Trenches 
are  frequently  built  with  a  substantial  parados  and 
no  parapet. 

Revetments.  The  interior  slope  must  nearly  always 
be  revetted.  These  revetments  are  of  many  varied 
types.  For  more  deliberate  works,  gahions^  which  are 
large  cylindrical  baskets,  woven  without  ends  and  earth 
filled,  are  largely  used.  In  permanent  works  masonry 
and  concrete  are  common.  In  the  field,  however,  re- 
vetments must  be  improvised  from  the  materials  at 
hand.  Sand  'bags  are  probably  the  most  popular,  as 
they  will  not  splinter  under  fire  and  afford  more  flexi- 
bility in  their  use,  but  stone,  logs,  planks,  sod,  brush 
fascines  and  hurdles,  and  even  steel  sheet  piling  all 
find  their  use. 

For  crowning  a  parapet,  some  material  which  will 


FIELD    FORTIFICATIONS  89 

not  splinter,  as  sod  or  sand  bags,  must  be  used.  The 
former  is  cut  rather  thick  and  built  up  as  ashlar  ma- 
sonry with  alternate  headers  and  stretchers.  Sand  bags 
are  laid  up  in  a  similar  manner,  but  must  not  be  filled 
to  a  too  plump  form.  They  must  be  laid  with  a  shove- 
joint,  in  order  to  close  all  crevices,  and  the  tied  ends, 
or  chokeSy  and  the  seams,  must  be  laid  in  the  parapet. 
Logs  and  planks  are  cut  to  the  height  of  the  interior 
slope,  their  ends  placed  behind  a  foot  log  in  a  shallow 
trench,  and  their  tops  secured  by  a  waling  piece  which 
is  anchored  to  stakes  buried  in  the  parapet.  Poles  are 
laid  horizontally  behind  vertical  stakes,  whose  lower 
ends  are  driven  in  the  ground  and  whose  tops  are  an- 
chored to  stakes  in  the  parapet  as  described  above. 
Fascines,  or  bundles  of  brush,  are  treated  similarly. 
Hurdles  are  woven  sheets  of  basket  work,  like  a  gabion 
rolled  out  straight.  They  are  secured  by  driving  their 
vertical  stakes  into  the  ground  and  anchoring  their 
tops.  Hurdles  are  particularly  adapted  to  the  revet- 
ment of  trenches  in  unstable  earth,  provided  it  will 
stand  long  enough  to  complete  the  excavation. 

Traverses.  A  trench  is  protected  from  enfilade,  i.  e., 
from  a  flanking  fire  which  rakes  the  trench  from  end 
to  end,  by  offsets  known  as  traverses.  (Fig.  17a.)  In 
order  to  afford  a  maximum  development  of  the  firing 
line  the  trench  is  sometimes  offset  to  the  front,  but  this 
type  does  not  meet  with  much  favor.  The  best  form  is 
the  detached  traverse,  with  a  firing  trench  in  front  and 
a  passage  in  rear,  from  which  the  communicating 
trench  leads.  Besides  intercepting  enfilade  fire,  tra- 
verses tend  to  localize  the  effects  of  a  shell  bursting  in 
the  trench.  The  traverse  should  be  high  enough  to 
protect  not  only  the  trench,  but-^the  heads  of  men  fir- 
ing over  the  parapet.  It  should  not,  however,  be  higher 
than  the  parados.  Fig.  17  (b)  shows  the  effect  of  a 
bend  in  the  trench,  exposing  a  portion  to  flanking  fire. 
This  may  be  remedied  by  a  longer  traverse,  a  shorter 


90 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE   ENGINEER 


distance  between  traverses,  a  recess  at  the  point  ex- 
posed or  a  parados.  The  present  tendency  is  towards 
a  wider  traverse  than  heretofore,  owing  to  the  use  of 


F/ri    •'^" 


Enemy  s 
Fire  V 


ffif/emen 

Exposed  to 

Enfilade  Ft  re 


A" longer  Traverse, 
d -Traverses  Closer  Togefhen 
C-Parados, 
O"  Recess  with  ffiHemen 
Farther  Forward* 

FIG.   17.      PROTECTION  FROM  ENFILADE 


FIG.     18.      DIGGING    IN    UNDER    FIRE 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS 


91 


high  explosive  shell  and  machine  guns.  The  latter  can 
cut  down  an  ordinary  traverse  in  a  few  minutes,  es- 
pecially if  not  revetted.  The  space  under  a  traverse, 
which  cannot  be  reached  by  the  enemy's  fire,  is  some- 
times hollowed  out  and  used  for  a  magazine  or  store 
house. 

Firing  Trenches.  In  the  operation  of  digging  in 
under  fire,  the  soldier  first  excavates  a  shallow  prone 
trench,  deepening  it  successively  to  a  kneeling  and  a 
standing  trench,  the  final  step  being  the  construction 
of  a  passageway  in  rear,  through  which  a  man  may 
pass  without  disturbing  the  troops  firing  and  without 
exposing  his  head  over  the  parapet.  (Fig.  18.)  A 
prone  or  kneeling  trench  should  not  be  contemplated 
for  a  moment  except  as  steps  towards  a  standing 
trench,  as  they  are  utterly  useless  against  shrapnel. 

In  Fig.  19  (a)  a  common  error  is  illustrated.  The 
parapet  is  not  bullet-proof,  and  the  rifleman  is  exposed 


(a)   Incorrect, 


( b)  Corrected . 

FIG.    19.       BULLET-PROOF    PARAPET 


92 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


to  a  plunging  fire,  as  from  shrapnel  or  infantry  at 
long  range,  from  his  belt  buckle  up.  The  interior 
slope  must  be  revetted,  and  straightened  up  so  as  to 
increase  the  top  thickness  of  the  parapet  and  to  afford 
cover  to  the  rifleman  to  the  height  of  his  shoulders. 
(Fig.l9-b.) 
Fig.  20  shows  a  plain  standing  trench  of  low  parapet. 


Markou^S 
and  Increase  as 
Required  for 
Soft  Ground 


'ghfFall  to 
'Bad  for  Water 


FIG.    20.      STANDING  TRENCH 


Back  for  Water 


PIG.    21.      STANDING  TEENCH   WITH   PASSAGE 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS 


93 


Fig.  21  shows  the  same  with  the  addition  of  a  pas- 
sage. This  latter  may  be  excavated  under  fire,  with  the 
occupants  of  the  firing  step  in  action.  The  recesses 
in  the  parapet  are  for  spare  ammunition. 

In  Fig.  22  the  parapet  is  entirely  surpressed  and 
the  earth  wasted.  The  firing  step  is  replaced  by  a  plat- 
form, allowing  space  underneath  for  resting  or  storage. 


^■/i^-zm 


FIG.    22.      FIRING    TRENCH    WITHOUT    PARAPET 


Fig.  23  is  a  development  from  a  series  of  individual 
rifle  pits,  a  connecting  trench  having  been  dug  along 
their  rear.  In  addition  to  the  traverses  formed  by  the 
recesses,  which  protect  the  men  firing  from  enfilade, 
the  passage  trench  itself  should  be  traversed,  to  protect 
those  using  it. 

Head  Cover.  Against  a  heavy  fire  the  types  of 
trenches  described  would  not  afford  sufficient  protec- 


94 


PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 


tion,  and  some  form  of  head  cover  must  be  adopted. 
This  may  be  formed  by  crenellating  the  parapet,  form- 
ing notches  or  embrasures  through  which  to  fire,  or  by 
the  construction  of  loopholes,  which  are  embrasures 


ST£PS 


/F  NO  HEADCOVER    iVfLL. 
BE  AODEiDp   S/NGLE.    /?^ - 
CESSES    MAY    BE    2' ANO 

Double  '9'w/oe 
Double  Recess 

3/ngle  /?eces'$ 


FIG.   23.      RECESSED  FIRING  TRENCH 


roofed  over.  A  crenellated  parapet  does  not  afford  as 
good  protection  as  loopholes,  and  is  usually  very  con- 
spicuous, unless  viewed  against  a  high  parados  as  a 
background. 

Fig.  24  illustrates  types  of  loopholes.  In  A  a  wide 
opening  is  presented  to  the  enemy,  but  the  rifleman  has 
a  large  angle  of  fire  with  small  movement  on  his  part. 
The  cheeks  of  the  loophole  must  be  stepped  as  shown 
to  prevent  bullets  glancing  in  through  the  throat.  In 
B  a  small  opening  is  exposed  to  the  enemy 's  view,  but 
the  rifleman  must  change  his  position  considerably  to 
alter  his  line  of  fire  to  any  appreciable  extent.  Fewer 
men  per  given  length  of  trench  could  be  used  with 
such  loopholes  than  with  those  of  the  A  type.    In  C  is 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS 


95 


shown  a  compromise  of  the  two  types.  A  steel  plate, 
cut  out  as  shown,  is  usually  placed  in  the  throat  of 
loopholes  of  the  C  type.  Loopholes  should  be  screened 
if  light  may  be  seen  through  them,  as  otherwise  the 


^  Head  Cover  Bullet- Proof  Thickness 
According  to  Mater/a/ 
Alternative  Arrangements  of  Lo(>|5holes  \n  Plan 

^/il  thick 


k  -  -  -  2' ><        K 2'"' 

Steel    Loopholes    \n    Plates. 

FIG.    24.      TYPES    OF    LOOPHOLES 


obscuring  of  an  orifice  means  a  head  behind  it,  and 
the  enemy's  sharpshooters  will  learn  the  location  of 
the  holes  and  fire  when  the  light  is  cut  off. 

Fig.  25  shows  a  common  error  of  the  individual 
soldier  in  constructing  a  loophole  and  how  it  may  be 
avoided.  It  is  usually  necessary  to  examine  all  loop- 
holes built  by  enlisted  men  and  see  that  an  unobstruct- 
ed field  of  fire  in  the  proper  direction  is  afforded. 

Overhead  Cover.  Under  shrapnel  bombardment  head 
cover  alone  is  insufficient,  and  overhead  cover  must  be 
provided.    The  simplest  form  is  that  prepared  by  the 


96 


PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

160"        ''•*<V/ 

^^>>.       /  Up, to  60" 


.^^''">j?.^'r^e'''"''% 


/,<t<^^^n:^  Head  Cover 


\in  Bags 


Cartridges-'' 
Sandbags  of  Earth 

Incorrect. 


Correct. 

FIG.   25.      LOOPHOLE   CORRECTED  FOR   WIDE 
ANGLE  OF  FIRE 


Sectional  Elevation  A-A 

FIG.    26.      INDIVIDUAL    OVERHEAD    COVER 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS 


*  97 


individual  soldier,  Fig.  26.  Boards  are  laid  on  the 
ground  and  covered  by  the  parapet  as  the  excavation 
of  a  plain  standing  trench  proceeds.  The  niche  is 
finally  scooped  out  under  the  boards.  He  occupies  this 
recess  during  an  artillery  bombardment  and  uses  the 
standing  trench  for  firing.    Fig.  27  shows  a  somewhat 


Firing 


PARAPET    SHELTER 


more  elaborate  form,  designated  a  parapet  shelter. 
The  wooden  platform  provides  a  continuous  firing  step. 
Such  overhead  cover  contains  from  one  to  two  feet  of 
earth  and  is  known  as  a  splinter-proof.  A  homb-proof 
is  built  to  resist  high  explosive  shell,  and  is  roofed  with 
heavy  timbers  covered  with  six  to  twenty  feet  of  earth. 
Broken  stone  covered  with  earth  is  also  used  for  over- 
head cover. 

The  highest  type  of  firing  trench  is  one  completely 
roofed  over  by  splinter-proof  construction,  loopholed 
to  the  front,  and  accessible  by  stairs  or  communicating 
trenches  to  the  rear.     (Fig.  28.) 

Firing  trenches  which  are  liable  to  be  rushed,  or 
from  which  a  charge  is  to  be  made,  must  be  constructed 
without  head  or  overhead  cover.  Otherwise  the  troops 
will  find  it  impossible  to  leave  the  trench  in  a  hody  to 


98  • 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


make  a  rush,  and  they  will  be  caught  like  rats  in  a  trap 
by  a  successful  charge  of  the  enemy.  A  man  in  even 
an   open  trench   is    at   a   considerable   disadvantage 


FIG.    28.      FIRING    TRENCH    WITH    OVERHEAD    COVER 


against  an  enemy  with  a  bayonet  who  reaches  the  crest 
above  him,  but  if  inclosed  by  overhead  cover,  the  en- 
tire garrison  of  a  trench  may  be  annihilated  by  hand 
grenades  thrown  through  the  loop  holes.  The  Japanese 
battle  regulations  specify  that  the  defender  shall  not 
await  the  final  rush  to  the  edge  of  the  trench,  but  shall 
leave  his  trench  and  counter-charge  with  the  bayonet 
as  soon  as  the  obstacles  are  passed.  Egress  from  firing 
trenches  to  the  front  may  be  facilitated  by  digging  a 
couple  of  steps  in  the  front  face  and  setting  a  stake  in 
the  parapet,  to  be  grasped  by  the  hand  in  climbing 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS 


99 


out.  Unless  some  such  device  is  constructed,  much  val- 
uable time  may  be  lost  in  commencing  a  charge. 

Cover  trenches  are  provided  for  troops  in  reserve, 
and  may  be  entirely  inclosed,  with  no  facilities  for 
firing,  and  connected  by  communicating  trenches  with 
the  firing  line.     (Fig.  29.)    In  a  cover  trench  occupied 


9  "to  IZ  "Earth 


Z" Sticks 
I"  Planks 


FIG.    29.       COVER    TRENCH 


^y\^-ii-^iz 


by  troops  on  duty  only,  as  in  a  combined  fire  and  cover 
trench,  six  square  feet  of  floor  area  must  be  allowed 
for  each  man.  For  more  continuous  occupancy,  twelve 
square  feet,  and  for  habitation  of  long  duration, 
eighteen  to  twenty  square  feet,  are  required.  The 
thickness  of  overhead  cover  required  depends  upon  the 
nature  of  the  fire  it  will  have  to  resist.  It  may  vary 
therefore  from  a  splinter-proof  roof  one  foot  thick  to 
a  bomb-proof  of  any  desired  depth.  Points  whose  pro- 
tection is  of  the  greatest  importance,  as  telephone  cen- 
tral stations  and  posts  of  important  commanders,  may 
be  placed  from  thirty  to  forty  feet  underground. 
Communicating  trenches  are  constructed  in  zig-zags 


100 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


to  prevent  enfilade,  and  lead  from  the  cover  to  the 
fire  trenches.  They  are  built  very  narrow  and  deep, 
with  passing  points  hollowed  out  of  the  walls  at  fre- 
quent intervals.  The  excavated  earth  is  piled  up  on 
both  sides,  to  reduce  the  amount  of  digging,  and  at 
the  junctions  of  the  diagonals  are  located  short 
stretches  of  trench  (returns),  in  which  are  located  the 
first-aid  dressing  stations  and  the  sanitary  arrange- 
ments. All  earth  must  be  disguised  to  resemble  the 
surroundings. 

Machine  gun  emplacements  are  located  at  frequent 
intervals  along  the  line,  the  intention  being  to  move 
the  guns  from  one  emplacement  to  another  as  their 
effectiveness  can  be  thus  increased,  and  as  the  enemy  ^s 
fire  becomes  too  severe  for  them  in  other  locations. 
Fig.  30  shows  a  typical  machine  gun  emplace- 
ment.   When  this  type  is  used,  however,  it  has  been 


z 

Parap^r    f/.O 

-10 

'^5 

'3.5 

1 
1 

0"         Passage    TreA7c/7    -S.S 

P**' 

""                          PLAN 

. 

r^ 

FIG.    30.      MACHINE   GUN  EMPLACEMENT 


FIELD    FOK'l!^'ICl":iCNr 


101 


found  that  the  enemy  will  concentrate  his  fire  upon  the 
machine  guns  and  put  them  out  of  commission  at  the 
first.    The  method  now  recommended  is  to  place  the 


DETAIL 


^ 


pSsffli 


w 


w 


^^ap 


ir 


PLAN 

FIG.    31.       MACHINE   GUN   EMPLACEMENT  FOR   CROSS   FIRE 


machine  guns  behind  a  strong  parapet,  with  no  facili- 
ties for  frontal  fire.  From  behind  the  flanks  of  this 
protection,  which  is  only  slightly  higher  than  the  firing 
parapet,  they  cover  the  space  between  emplacements 
by  a  cross-fire.     (Fig.  31). 

Gun  cover  is  secured  by  two  methods,  epaulments 
and  pits.  In  the  former,  a  low  parapet  is  constructed 
in  front,  to  fill  the  space  between  the  ground  and  the 
gun  shield,  higher  embankments  on  the  sides,  and 
trenches  in  the  rear  for  the  gun  crew.  A  trench  is 
usually  provided  for  the  ammunition,  of  which  a  large 
stock  must  be  on  hand  if  a  heavy  fire  is  to  be  main- 
tained. If  the  fire  is  to  be  delivered  at  a  high  angle, 
the  gun  may  be  sunk  into  the  ground,  and  a  long  slop- 


102  PI^EPAREDNESS   A>:0   TKE   ENGINEER 

ing  trench  dug  in  prolongation  of  the  barrel.  The 
excavated  earth  is  piled  on  the  sides,  as  the  shield 
usually  suflSces  for  frontal  cover. 

CONCEALMENT   OF   FIELD   WORKS. 

Concealment  is  now  considered  of  prime  importance 
in  the  location  and  construction  of  field  fortifications. 
In  fact,  troops  that  are  well  hidden  from  the  enemy  are 
probably  safer  than  those  which  are  sheltered  in  strong 
works  but  still  under  his  observation. 

Disguising. 

The  sky  line  must  be  avoided,  as  it  is  practically  im- 
possible to  treat  the  outlines  of  the  parapet  so  as  to  dis- 
guise its  real  identity.  Also,  regular  outlines  and  par- 
ticularly the  abrupt  ending  of  a  parapet,  tend  to  betray 
the  position  of  a  work.  A  safe  rule  to  be  followed  is 
that  the  natural  appearance  of  the  terrain  is  to  be 
changed  as  little  as  possible.  Concealment  is  therefore 
facilitated  by  surpressing  the  parapet,  making  it  con- 
form to  the  general  shape  of  the  ground,  and  narrowing 
the  trench  on  a  forward  slope,  so  that  its  rear  edge  is 
not  visible  over  the  parapet.  Sod  over  the  space  which 
will  be  occupied  by  the  trench  and  parapet  should  be 
removed  and  carefully  replaced  over  the  complete  para- 
pet, so  as  to  hide  the  fresh  earth.  This  is  best  accom- 
plished by  cutting  the  sod  in  strips  and  rolling  it 
towards  the  enemy,  afterwards  rolling  it  back  over  the 
parapet.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  remarked  that 
the  mere  covering  of  the  parapet  with  material  of  the 
same  color  as  the  surroundings  does  not  necessarily  con- 
ceal it,  as  its  apparent  color  to  the  enemy  may  appear 
quite  different  when  viewed  on  the  steep  slopes  of  the 
parapet  and  on  the  adjacent  level  ground,  owing  to  the 
varying  light  reflections. 

The  transplanting  of  small  trees,  bushes,  etc.,  which 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS  103 

must  be  placed  in  front  of  rather  than  on  the  parapet, 
will  aid  concealment,  but  the  scattering  of  leaves, 
branches,  etc.,  over  the  earth,  or  the  sticking  of  limbs  of 
trees  into  it,  are  worse  than  useless,  as  the  fresh  vegeta- 
tion soon  withers  and  renders  the  position  more  con- 
spicuous than  before.  Dead  leaves,  twigs,  etc.,  are  ex- 
cellent, provided  the  surrounding  earth  is  covered  with 
the  same  material.  It  goes  without  saying  that  neigh- 
boring patches  of  ground  should  not  be  denuded  of  sod 
and  rendered  highly  conspicuous  in  order  to  provide 
covering  for  the  parapet. 

Dummy  Trenches  are  a  very  useful  adjunct  to  con- 
cealment, as  directing  the  attention  of  the  enemy  away 
from  the  occupied  works.  They  are  most  effective  when 
they  present  the  appearance  of  real  trenches  ineffect- 
ually concealed  rather  than  excavations  made  without 
any  attempt  at  hiding  them.  In  short,  the  enemy's  at- 
tention must  not  be  too  expressly  invited  to  them.  The 
turning  over  of  a  two-foot  strip  of  sod,  with  perhaps  a 
foot  of  excavation  at  the  rear  edge,  will  usually  be  suf- 
ficient. Dummy  trenches  must  not  be  placed  where 
fire  directed  at  them  will  endanger  the  true  position. 

Dummy  artillery  positions  are  sometimes  prepared 
with  considerable  care,  and  are  very  effective  when 
the  details  are  well  carried  out.  According  to  a 
recent  British  publication,  an  excellent  Quaker  gun 
may  be  made  from  a  section  of  a  telegraph  pole  and  the 
fore  truck  of  a  farm  wagon,  with  boards  for  gun 
shields.  If  at  intervals  a  couple  of  ounces  of  gunpow- 
der are  placed  on  a  tin  shelf  at  the  muzzle,  and  fired 
electrically,  especially  at  the  same  time  a  real  gun  is 
fired  elsewhere,  the  enemy  may  be  tempted  to  waste 
many  rounds  of  perfectly  good  live  shell. 

Concealment  from  Aerial  Observers.  It  has  been 
found  from  the  present  war  that  nearly  all  trenches  are 
easily  visible  to  the  enemy 's  air  scouts,  but  if  care  has 
been  taken  to  remove  from  the  adjacent  ground  all 


104  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

prominent  marks  by  which  the  observer  can  locate  the 
trenches  to  the  gunners,  the  latter  will  have  consider- 
able difficulty  in  getting  on  the  target  from  the  observ- 
er's description.  All  prominent  trees  or  clumps  of 
vegetation,  buildings,  light-colored  rocks,  wind-mills, 
etc.,  that  might  thus  serve  as  reference  points  should  be 
avoided  in  locating  the  trenches,  or  cleared  away  from 
the  vicinity. 

While  the  trenches  are  usually  seen  without  diffi- 
culty, it  is  hard  to  determine,  from  the  height  at  which 
the  reconnaissance  must  be  made,  whether  or  not  they 
are  occupied.  The  straw  which  is  sometimes  placed  in 
the  bottom  of  trenches  to  protect  the  feet  of  the  men 
from  wet  ground  adds  greatly  to  their  visibility  and 
aids  in  ascertaining  their  occupancy.  The  paths  which 
may  be  worn  to  a  trench  or  more  particularly  to  a  gun 
position  often  result  in  the  betrayal  of  a  work  which 
would  otherwise  escape  notice.  Also,  the  absence  of 
such  paths  to  an  otherwise  obvious  gun  position  may 
proclaim  the  latter  as  a  dummy. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

OBSTACLES. 

Fire  action  alone  will  not  stop  a  determined  enemy. 
It  has  been  found  that  troops  will  not  remain  to  meet 
a  charge  if  it  advances  too  close  for  comfort.  There- 
fore some  obstacle  must  be  presented  to  an  advance  be- 
yond a  certain  point.  Natural  obstacles  may  be  taken 
advantage  of  where  encountered,  but  these  are  not  plenr. 
tif ul,  and  are  seldom,  situated  where  they  can  be  effect- 
ively used. 

Obstacles  must  not  be  constructed  as  part  x)f  the  de- 
fensive works  of  a  position  without  the  authority  of  the 
officer  commanding  the  section  of  line,  as  they  may  in- 
terfere seriously  with  contemplated  movements  of  the 
defending  troops,  when  a  change  is  to  be  made  to  the 
offensive.  Furthermore,  obstacles  should  not  be  made 
continuous  along  the  entire  front,  as  they  will  prevent 
counter-attacks  and  the  resumption  of  the  offensive  by 
our  own  troops.  *  The  gaps  are  swept  by  concentrated 
fire  from  machine  guns  and  specially  designated  units. 
When  openings  are  left  in  this  manner,  the  way  of  ap- 
proach of  the  enemy  is  in  a  measure  predetermined,  as 
attacking  troops  will  always  crowd  towards  the  ^aps. 
Care  must  be  taken  that  works  otherwise  well  concealed 
are  not  betrayed  by  the  obstacles  erected  to  protect 
them. 

Barrier  Obstacles.  To  be  effective  an  obstacle  must 
be  concealed  from  the  enemy,  it  must  not  afford  any 
cover  to  an  attacking  force  nor  obstruct  the  fire  of  the 
defense,  and  it  must  be  difficult  of  destruction.  Ob- 
stacles are  best  located  at  a  short  distance  in  front  of 
the  parapet.      This  distance  varies  considerably  as 

105 


106  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

recommended  in  the  service  manuals,  50  to  100  yards 
being  usual,  but  with  the  short  field  of  fire  allowed  by 
approved  practice  in  the  present  war,  this  figure  may 
be  materially  reduced.  Some  photographs  of  actual 
works  shows  the  obstacles  placed  against  the  parapet. 
It  is  said,  however,  that  such  close  proximity  is  objec- 
tionable, as  it  permits  the  enemy  ^s  grenade  throwers  to 
approach  at  night  and  bombard  the  trench. 

Some  types  of  obstacles  are  shown. in  Fig.  32,  which 
is  reproduced  from  the  Engineer  Field  Manual,  U.  S. 
Army.  The  abatis  consists  of  large  branches  of  trees, 
which  are  trimmed  of  all  foliage  and  small  limbs,  their 
ends  sharpened,  and  then  laid  in  several  rows,  the 
pointed  ends  towards  the  enemy.  The  butts  are  firmly 
staked  down  and  barbed  wire  is  interlaced  among  the 
branches.  An  abatis  is  easily  destroyed  by  artillery 
fire  unless  concealed  in  a  natural  depression  or  a  ditch. 
It  may  also  be  protected  by  raising  an  embankment 
in  front  of  it,  with  a  long  sloping  glacis  towards  the 
enemy. 

A  slashing  is  a  quick  substitute  for  an  abatis, 
made  by  cutting  trees  nearly  through  and  felling  them 
towards  the  enemy.  This,  however,  is  liable  to  afford 
too  much  cover  to  the  attack  unless  swept  by  cross-fire. 

A  palisade  is  a  strong  fence.  It  must  not  be  made 
of  poles  large  enough  to  give  protection  to  a  man,  and 
it  must  be  securely  set  in  the  ground.  This  is  best 
accomplished  by  burying  the  butts  of  the  poles  in  a 
trench,  with  stone  wedges  between  the  butts  and  log 
waling  pieces  on  one  or  both  sides.  A  waling  piece 
above  ground  assists  materially  in  scaling  the  obstacle, 
but  strands  of  barbed  wire  at  the  top  add  to  its  ef- 
fectiveness. 

A  f raise  is  a  horizontal  palisade  or  wire  fence  built 
out  from  the  scarp  or  counterscarp  of  a  ditch. 

Roads  may  be  closed,  especially  against  cavalry,  by 
chevaux  de  frise,  which  are  obstacles  built  in  ''saw- 


OBSTACLES 


107 


FIG.  32.   OBSTACLES 


108  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

buck''  form.  They  are  constructed  in  sections  and 
chained  together.  The  figure  shows  how  they  may  be 
built  up  of  dimension  lumber.  Cavalry  may  also  be 
stopped  by  setting  railway  ties  in  the  ground  and  spik- 
ing a  rail  along  their  tops  four  or  five  feet  from  the 
ground. 

If  the  topography  permits,  a  very  good  obstacle  may 
be  formed  by  flooding  the  ground  immediately  in  front 
of  the  works.  This  may  be  impracticable,  however, 
on  account  of  the  labor  involved. 

At  the  bottom  of  Fig.  32  are  shown  two  types  of 
obstacles  used  during  the  Eusso-Japanese  War.  The 
Eussian  type,  consisting  of  heavy  timber  trestles,  was 
prepared  behind  the  lines  and  carried  out  in  place. 
The  Japanese  obstacle  was  constructed  by  sticking 
light  poles  into  the  ground  and  wiring  them  together 
where  they  crossed,  or  by  treating  in  the  same  manner 
.the  trunks  of  young  trees  growing  in  place. 

The  wire  entanglement  has  come  to  be  acceptQd  as 
the  standard  form  of  obstacle,  and  possesses  many  ad- 
vantages over  most  other  types.  It  cannot  be  easily 
destroyed  by  artillery,  it  is  extremely  difficult  of  pas- 
sage, affords  no  cover  to  the  assault,  is  not  conspicuous 
at  any  distance,  and  is  fairly  rapid  of  construction. 
Fig.  33  shows  a  common  type,  two  panels  wide.  Note 
the  great  difference  in  the  size  of  the  openings  left  by 
staggering  the  center  row  of  posts  as  against  placing 
them  rectangularly.  The  wires  must  be  strung  loosely, 
as  they  are  thus  less  easily  cut  by  blows  from  a  bayonet 
or  machete.  No  horizontal  wires  are  placed  on  top,  so 
that  any  attempt  at  crossing  the  entanglements  on 
planks  or  ladders  will  be  defeated  by  their  tipping 
over. 

In  the  European  War,  it  has  been  found  that  the 
noise  of  driving  posts  for  entanglements  at  night  will 
draw  a  heavy  fire  upon  the  working  party,  so  it  has 
been  the  practice  to  construct  wooden  forms  or  trestles 


OBSTACLES 


109 


inside  the  works,  string  them  with  barbed  wire,  and 
place  them  in  position  at  night.  They  are  chained  or 
lashed  together,  and  are  sometimes  anchored  back  to 
the  trench,  to  prevent  the  enemy's  hauling  them  away 
by  means  of  grapnels. 


Incorrect. 


Correct, 


FIG.    33.      WIRE    ENTANGLEMENTS 


Destroying  Ohstacles.  "Wire  entanglements  are  de- 
stroyed by  cutting  the  wires  with  clippers  or  bayonets, 
or  by  throwing  a  heavy  grapnel  over  them  by  means 
of  a  trench  mortar  and  hauling  it  back.  A  pole  con- 
taining a  chain  of  dynamite  cartridges  may  be  laid 
or  thrown  across  the  entanglement  and  the  charges  ex- 
ploded. This  will  cut  all  the  wires  in  contact  with 
the  pole,  but  little  progress  can  be  made  in  this  way 
towards  the  destruction  of  the  entire  obstacle,  and  the 
opening  of  one  passage  will  cause  an  attacking  force  to 
concentrate  and  offer  an  excellent  target  for  machine 
guns. 


110  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

An  abatis  or  slashing  is  attacked  by  cutting  the  in- 
terlaced wires  with  pliers,  opening  up  a  way  through 
tire  obstacle,  and  attacking  it  in  the  rear  with  axes.  The 
branches  may  be  easily  cut  from  the  rear,  pulled  out 
of  the  abatis  and  cast  into  piles.  A  long  string  of  ex- 
plosives on  a  pole,  as  described  above,  will  be  useful  in 
effecting  the  first  breach. 

Palisades,  fraises,  and  chevaux  de  frise  are  attacked 
by  axes.  They  are  more  easily  destroyed  under  fire 
than  the  other  types  described.  At  night,  parties  may 
pile  brush  around  them  and  set  it  afire.  Floods  may 
be  reduced  by  cutting  the  dam  which  backs  up  the 
water,  if  it  can  be  reached,  or  by  opening  an  outlet 
for  the  water  to  lower  ground.  When  very  low  lands 
are  flooded  by  cutting  ocean  dikes,  as  in  Belgium, 
there  is  little  that  can  be  done  except  to  attack  with 
boats  and  rafts,  by  night. 

Flares  and  Alarm  Signals,  As  most  attempts  at  cut- 
ting obstacles  will  be  made  at  night,  some  form  of  alarm 
must  be  provided  to  warn  the  defenders.  The  best 
of  these  burst  into  fire  and  not  only  give  a  signal  but 
illuminate  the  obstacles  sufficiently  to  guide  the  fire 
of  the  defense.  They  are  usually  operated  by  trip  or 
cut  wires.  The  former  operate  by  the  enemy 's  pulling 
or  tripping  over  them,  the  latter  by  being  cut  and  re- 
leasing a  weight,  which,  in  falling,  actuates  the  alarm. 
Some  signals  are  arranged  to  operate  either  upon  a 
pull  or  by  the  slacking  of  the  alarm  wire.  The  weight 
may  be  attached  to  a  cord  which  will  pull  the  trigger 
of  a  rifle,  or  may  fall  upon  a  cartridge.  A  shot,  how- 
ever, is  not  sufficient  where  shots  are  being  constantly 
fired,  and  the  same  apparatus  may  be  made  to  ignite 
a  flare  by  inserting  an  instantaneous  fuse  in  the  cart- 
ridge and  leading  it  to  a  heap  of  gunpowder  in  a  pre- 
pared bonfire.  The  latter,  if  intended  to  remain  for 
some  time,  must  be  roofed  over  with  canvas  or  boards. 
Where  entanglements  are  close,  pieces  of  tin  and  iron 


OBSTACLES 


111 


may  be  hung  upon  the  wires,  to  rattle  when  disturbed. 
When  the  alarm  has  once  been  given,  a  flare  consisting 
of  a  rag  ball,  wound  upon  a  wood  block,  saturated 
with  oil  and  rolled  in  gunpowder,  may  be  fired  from 
the  trench  by  a  gas  pipe  cannon,  using  a  small  pro- 
pelling charge  of  powder.  This  will  burn  for  a  short 
time  and  disclose  the  nature  of  an  attack.  For  more 
complete  illumination,  bonfires  may  be  ignited  from 
the  trenches  by  electricity  or  an  instantaneous  fuse. 
They  should  of  course  be  screened  to  prevent  lighting 
up  the  trenches. 

No  form  of  automatic  alarm  must  be  allowed  to  take 
the  place  of  alertness  on  the  part  of  the  defense. 

Land  mines  are  temporarily  effective  as  an  obstacle. 
They  are  planted  in  several  lines  and  usually  fired 
electrically  by  successive  rows.  '  A  land  mine  proper 
is  exploded  as  the  enemy  crosses  it,  a  fougasse  is  ar- 
ranged to  blow  stones  in  the  face  of  a  charging  enemy. 
(Fig.  34).  Mines  must  not  be  so  heavily  charged  that 


FIG.    34.      LAND    MINE  AND   FOUGASSE 

their  craters  will  offer  cover  to  advancing  troops,  but 
unless  the  charge  is  heavy,  their  actual  execution  will 
be  small.  The  effect  of  land  mines,  therefore,  is  mainly 
moral,  it  being  difficult  to  send  troops  across  a  field 
known  or  supposed  to  be  mined,  or  in  which  mines 
have  been  exploded.    To  determined  troops,  however. 


112  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

they  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  furnish  a  permanent 
barrier. 

Fig.  35  shows  the  explosion  of  a  row  of  land  mines 
laid  by  the  engineers  at  the  ''Battle  of  Martins  Moun- 
tain/' during  the  Fishkill  Plains  maneuvers  of  the 
First  Brigade,  N.  Q.  N.  Y.,  season  of  1915.  The 
trenches  in  the  foreground  were  occupied  by  the  71st 
N.  Y.  Infantry,  part  of  the  defending  troops. 


LAND    MINES 


Table  of  Men,  Time,  and  Tools* 

required  for  the  execution  of  certain  field-works. 

Note. — Except  where  otherwise  stated,  the  material 
and  tools  are  assumed  to  be  on  the  site  of  the  work. 
All  tracing  and  marking  is  to  be  done  before  the 
distribution  of  the  working  parties  at  the  sites.  Not 
more  than  five  minutes  should  be  consumed  in  dis- 
tributing the  men  or  in  changing  reliefs,  if  the  men 
have  been  told  off  into  suitable  groups  or  parties 
under  leaders  previously  instructed  in  the  nature  of 
the  particular  works  in  hand.  One  leader  or  foreman 
can  conveniently  supervise  up  to  twenty  unskilled  men 
on  earth-work. 


*From  the  British  Manual  of  Field   Engineering 


OBSTxVCLES 


113 


No. 

Nature  of  Work. 

Minutes 
of  One 
Man 

PerUnit 
of  Task. 

Suitable 
Unit 
Party. 

Tools  per  Party. 

Entrenching. 

1 

Excavation  only. 

3 

1  cub.  ft. 

1 

1  shovel  and 
1  pick 

2 

Ditto,    in    small 
recesses,    shel- 
ters, etc 

9 

1  cub.  ft. 

1 

Ditto 

3 

Shovelling   loose 
earth 

1 

1  cub.  ft. 

1 

1  shovel 

4 

Removing     fifty 

T     o 

yards    (ave- 

I  ? 

1  cub.  ft. 

1 

1  barrow 

rage)    deposit, 

1     -^ 

1  cub.  ft. 

2 

1  stretcher 

and  return  . . . 

^ 

5 

Filling  sand-bags 

3 

1  sand- 
bag 

3 

2  shovels 

6 

Head  cover,  sand- 
bags or  sods . . 

60 

1    1  0  0  p- 
hole 

1 

1  shovel 

7 

Overhead   cover, 
added  to  head 
cover  in  a  re- 
cess   

GO 

1  rifle 

1 

1    shovel,    1 
hand-axe 

Revetments. 

8 

Brushwood, 

11/2 

1  sq.  ft. 

2 

1  bill  hook. 

rough  or  planks 

(Revet- 

1 mallet 

9 

Sand  -  bags      o  r 

ted) 

sack  

3 

lsq.ft.| 
Isq.ftl 

2 

2 

10 

Sods,    building 

1  shovel    or 

with    

.       ..  ^ 

spade 

11 

Sods,     provision 
of  (for  above) 
Cutting   and 
Felling. 

1  sq.ft. 

3 

3  sharp 
spades 

12 

Trees,  felling,  up 

1 

1    in.    of 

1 

1  felling  axe 

to  12  in.  diam. 

diam. 

or  saw 

10  bill-hooks 
4     felling 
axes 

13 

Woods,    clearing 

2y2 

1  sq.  yd. 

20^ 

4  hand  axes, 

2  saws 
1  grindstone 

2  whet- 

of   brushwood 
and  small  trees 

^ 

stones 

114 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


No. 

Nature  of  Work. 

Minutes 
of  One 
Man. 

Per  Unit 
of  Task. 

Suitable 
Unit 
Pai-ty. 

Tools  per  Party. 

Cutting     and 

Felling. 

14 

Hedges     (felling 

stems)   

10 

1  yd.  run 

2 

1  bill  hook 
or  hand- 
axe. 

1  saw,  3  fa- 

15 

Brick  wall,  not- 

thoms rope 

ches  in  up  to 

10 

1  notch. 

1 

Ipick  crow- 

18 in 

bar,       or 

mason's 

chisel  and 

Obstacles. 

hammer 

17 

Abatis,  and  wired 
(one  strong 
row)    

120 

1  yd.  run 

20 

As  for  item 
13 ;  also  2 
mauls,  3 
pr.  pliers, 
1  pickaxe, 
1  shovel 

1  bill-hook, 
1  hand- 
saw",  1 
maul,  1 
pr.  pliers, 
1  pr.  wire- 
cutters. 

18 

Wire     Entangle- 

3  rag   pads 

ment  

60 

1  sq.  yd. 

3- 

for     grip- 
ping   and 
straining 

wire. 
In  hard 
ground  add : 
1  steel 

jumper 
1  sledge- 
hammer 

CHAPTER  X. 

SIEGE  WORKS. 

Investment  of  a  fortified  place  is  accompanied  by 
various  activities  which,  on  account  of  the  time  re- 
quired, have  no  place  in  ordinary  field  works.  Siege 
operations  comprise  defensive  cover  for  the  attackers, 
mines  for  the  destruction  of  the  defenders'  works  and 
saps  to  bring  the  attacking  forces  within  assaulting 
distance. 

Sapping,  A  sap  is  a  zig-zag  trench  approaching  the 
point  of  attack.  (Fig.  36).  It  may  be  right-handed 
or  left -handed  y  according  to  whether  it  gains  ground 
to  the  right  or  left;  and  single  or  double,  according 
to  whether  it  is  driven  by  one  man,  heaping  the  exca- 
vated earth  on  the  side  nearest  the  enemy,  or  by  two 
men  working  side  by  side,  and  heaping  the  earth  on 
both  sides.  The  latter  is  the  usual  form  near  the  enemy, 
where  both  sides  must  be  protected,  and  in  this  case  the 
sap  is  pushed  forward  as  a  double  trench,  the  tongue  of 
earth  between  being  removed  by  soldiers  following  the 
sappers,  sim^ilarly  to  the  progressive  order  of  exca- 
vation followed  in  tunneling. 

Sapping  is  begun  from  the  first  parallel,  which  is  a 
firing  trench  established  as  near  as  practicable  to  the 
enemy's  works.  A  sap  should  not  extend  more  than 
about  100  feet  without  a  change  of  direction,  and  each 
branch  should  cover  the  head  of  the  preceding  branch 
by  overrunning  it  several  feet.  When  a  point  five  or  six 
hundred  yards  from  the  enemy  is  reached  the  second 
parallel  is  constructed,  and  from  this  a  heavy  rifle 
and  machine  gun  fire  is  kept  up  to  protect  the  sapping 

115 


116 


PREPAREDNESS  AiSTD  THE  ENGINEER 


operations.  The  third  parallel  is  placed  about  half 
way  between  the  second  and  the  point  of  attack,  and 
an  assault  will  usually  be  made  from  this  location, 


Enemy^s    Line 


FIG.     36.      APPROACH    BY    SAPPING 


though  it  may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  carry  the 
work  still  further. 

As  the  enemy's  works  are  approached  more  3losely, 
the  inclination  of  the  saps  becomes  flatter  and  (latter, 


SIEGE  WORKS 


117 


to  avoid  enfilade.  Finally,  protection  must  be  ob- 
tained by  rolling  a  pile  of  sand  bags  ahead  of  the  sap 
and  by  the  use  of  overhead  traverses.  These  are  con- 
structed by  placing  boards  across  the  sap  and  covering 


Sandbags. ^ 


-< 


Sap  j 

Protection  from  Enfilade. 


Sand 


Parallel 

FIG.    37.      A   SAP 

them  with  sand  bags.  They  must  be  so  spaced  that  a 
shot  clearing  one  will  be  intercepted  by  the  next.  (Fig 
37).    This  distance  is  made  less  as  the  work  proceeds. 


118  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

and  finally  the  sap  becomes  a  covered  way.    Further 
advance  must  then  be  made  by  mining  operations. 

Mining  comprises  underground  approaches  for  the 
purpose  of  placing  and  firing  charges  of  explosives 
under  the  enemy's  works.  A  mine  consists  of  a  shaft, 
sunk  vertically,  and  one  or  more  galleries,  driven  hori- 


W%   ^^^^^^^^P^^P^^^^??^^i^^^^^^!?''^^v^^^^^  ^^ 


^^i'-v  ^,  ,'^.  .-.  ..        .'-.     Charge ' 


FIG.    38.      MINE 


zontally.  (Fig.  38).  If  the  gallery  can  be  started 
from  a  ditch,  bank  or  hillside,  the  shaft  may  be  dis- 
pensed with,  and  much  trouble  avoided  in  carrying 
the  alignment  underground. 

Mines  must  be  driven  in  earth.  Drilling  and  blast- 
ing operations  are  impracticable  with  the  equipment 
ordinarily  available,  and  the  approach  of  the  mine 
would  be  known  to  the  enemy  long  before  it  was  ready 
for  use.  Nearly  all  the  work,  therefore,  must  be  pro- 
tected against  caving,  and  the  timbering  calls  for  all 
the  skill  of  the  miner  and  tunnel  worker.  Difficult 
soil  is  often  encountered,  and  full  sheeting  of  the 
Bhafts  and  galleries  is  the  rule  rather  than  the  ex- 
ception. Timbering  is  accomplished  by  the  method 
of  frames  and  sheeting  if  the  earth  is  unstable,  or  by 
cases  where  it  will  stand  long  enough  to  allow  their 
being  placed  in  position.     (Fig.  39). 


SIEGE  WORKS 


119 


The  alignment  of  a  mine  involves  quite  complicated 
underground  surveying,  and  must  never  be  placed  in 
charge  of  other  than  an  experienced  officer.  For 
changes  of  direction  bevels  are  made  above  ground 


PIG.    39.      MINE    TIMBERING 


from  strips  of  board,  and  applied  to  the  angle  as  laid 
out  in  the  mine.  In  fact,  the  operations  of  mining, 
timbering  and  alignment  conform  so  closely  to 
civilian  mining  practice  that  it  is  usually  sufficient  to 
point  out  the  purpose  to  be  accomplished  and  turn  the 
work  over  to  officers  and  men  experienced  along  this 
line. 

When  the  mine  is  completed,  the  charge  is  placed, 
the  officer  directing  the  work  being  designated  to  per- 
form this  duty  personally.  The  amount  of  explosive 
used  must  be  sufficient,  for  while  some  is  wasted  if  an 
overcharge  is  placed,  it  will  all  be  wasted  if  the  mine 
fails  of  its  purpose  from  undercharging.  The  plug, 
usually  of  sand  bags,  is  placed,  and  troops  are  massed 
in  the  last  parallel  for  an  assault.    These  troops  rush 


120  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

forward  as  soon  as  the  mine  is  fired,  occupy  the  crater 
and  begin  to  entrench  against  a  counter-attack.  En- 
gineers accompany  the  attack  and  assist  in  organizing 
the  position  for  defense. 

The  only  defense  against  mines  is  the  countermine. 
(Fig.  40) .  The  sound  of  working  in  earth  can  be  heard 
for  a  distance  of  thirty  to  forty  feet  through  the 
ground,  even  when  care  is  exercised,  and  an  alert 
enemy  will  have  listening  galleries  driven  out  in  front 
of  his  works  and  occupied  by  observers.  When  the 
approach  of  a  hostile  mine  is  detected,  the  listening 
gallery  may  be  converted  into  a  countermine  by  charg- 
ing it  and  exploding  it  when  the  attacking  heading 
comes  within  its  radius  of  rupture. 


'^<^>^;'i!/Miil!/^i/M^fli^^^^     -■■■ 


I 

i 


'•'^Wl^i^v''-''^^^ 


Countermine 
FIG.    40.       COUNTERMINE 

The  usual  aim  in  countermining  is  to  blow  in  the 
Me  of  the  hostile  mine  some  distance  back  from  its 
heading,  so  as  to  destroy  as  long  a  section  as  possible 
of  his  work  and  for  the  reason  that  the  crater  of  the 
countermine  may  be  occupied  by  the  attack,  and 
should  not  therefore  be  formed  near  the  defenders' 
position. 

A  camouflet  is  a  countermine  so  charged  as  to  blow 
in  the  attacking  mine  without  disturbing  the  surface 
of  the  ground.    Hence  no  crater  is  formed. 


SIEGE  WORKS 


121 


Rate  of  Workings.  The  following  table  gives  an  es- 
timate of  the  men  and  tools  required  for  shafts  and 
galleries,  with  the  probable  rate  of  advance  in  good 
soil: 


Rate  of  Working. 


Men. 

Tools. 

^ 

a 

o 

.4 

«5 

m 

® 

Kind  of  gallery, 

. 

^ 

T5 

^ 

w 

• 

> 

P. 

etc. 

o 

d 

i 

i 

i 

% 

o 

ID 

i 

2 

a 

.2 

bo 

1 

-2 
o 

OS 

>- 

1 

1 
1 

1 

b 
1 

DO 
0) 

03 
•  S 
OQ 

1 

Great    gallery    or 

blind  gallery 

1 

•12 

4 

2 

2 

8 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

12 

Common  gallery. . . 

Half  gallery 

Branch  gallery 

1 

4 

1 

1 

'^ 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 

] 

1 

12 

1 

+4 

1 

1 

9, 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

16 

1 

t4 

1 

1 

9, 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2i 

1 

8 

1 

1 

2 

§1 

* 

1 

1 

1 

1 

(30 

^  to 

(Sfi 

Shaft 

1 

114 

1 

1 

2 

1 

.... 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

( m 

i24 

From  Engineer  Field  Manual 


*  Four  of  these  may  be  unskilled  laborers. 

t  Number  required  at  commencement  of  gallery.  Beyond 
4  ft.  add  one  man,  and  one  man  additional  for  every  20  ft.  of 
gallery. 

t  One  mason's  level. 

§  Instead  of  a  truck  a  canvas  bag  may  be  used.  A  large 
hoe  or  drag  may  be  used  to  draw  back  the  earth  from  the 
face  of  the  gallery. 

II  These  numbers  are  for  small  shafts  of  about  2  ft.  by  4 
ft.  Large  shafts  require  a  larger  force.  They  advance  at 
about  the  same  rate  as  galleries  of  equal  cross-section. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

DEMOLITIONS. 

An  important  part  of  the  engineer's  work  in  the 
field  is  the  demolition  of  obstacles  or  hindrances  to 
his  own  advance,  and  of  things  which  may  prove  of 
material  assistance  to  the  enemy.  His  two  principal 
agents  are  fire  and  explosives. 

HIGH  EXPLOSIVES. 

Regarding  the  latter,  there  appeared  recently  in 
the  ''Columbia  Alumni  News,"  New  York,  Vol.  7,  No. 
20,  Feb.  18,  1916,  page  581,  an  article  on  High  Explo- 
sives by  M.  C.  Whitaker,  Professor  of  Engineering 
Chemistry.  This  article  had  been  delivered  as  an  ad- 
dress to  the  Columbia  Alumni,  and  the  material  is  so 
applicable  to  the  subject  in  hand,  that,  with  the  permis- 
sion of  Prof.  Whitaker,  it  is  here  presented  entire : 

''The  popular  idea  of  an  explosive  is  gunpowder. 
This  is  a  mixture  of  75  per  cent,  saltpeter,  10  per  cent, 
sulphur  and  15  per  cent,  charcoal.  These  substances 
are  carefully  ground  together  and  pressed  into  a  cake. 
After  being  carefully  dried  the  cakes  are  broken  into 
lumps  and  sized  in  order  to  produce  the  different 
grades  of  powder  required.  The  size  of  the  particles 
has  a  direct  bearing  on  the  rate  of  combustion,  and  by 
the  proper  selection  a  suitable  explosive  is  thus  found 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  different  sized  guns, 
ranging  from  small  rifles  to  heavy  mortars. 

"Within  the  span  of  our  lives,  however,  the  manufac- 
ture of  explosives  has  undergone  a  great  change.  The 
requirements  for  explosive  powder  and  accuracy  have 
become  more  exacting  as  the  range  of  the  guns  and  the 

122 


DEMOLITIONS  123 

accuracy  of  gun  fire  has  increased.  We  have  been  tre- 
mendously impressed  at  the  reports  of  the  results  of 
the  heavy  artillery  in  the  European  war,  but  it  is 
doubtful  if  Jhe  layman  has  given  much  study  or 
thought  to  the  means  by  which  these  results  have  been 
accomplished.  For  our  purposes  we  may  arrange  ex- 
plosives into  (1)  that  class  of  materials  which  give 
their  explosive  force  through  rapid  combustion,  e.  g., 
gunpowders,  smokeless  powders,  etc.;  (2)  the  class 
which  derives  its  explosive  force  from  detonation,  e.  g., 
nitroglycerine,  guncotton,  picric  acid  and  trinitrotol- 
uol; and  (3)  detonators,  or  those  substances  which  ex- 
plode with  extreme  violence  on  the  application  of  heat 
or  a  shock,  such  as  fulminates. 

ComhusWbles  and  Detonants. 

The  combustible  explosives  are  sometimes  classed  as 
low  explosives  and  the  detonatable  materials  as  high 
explosives,  and,  again,  the  combustible  explosives  are 
frequently  classed  as  propellants,  while  the  deton- 
atable substances  are  classed  as  disruptive  explosives. 

In  the  old  style  explosives,  such  as  gunpowder,  the  ^ 
explosive  constituents  were  mixed  together  as  intimate- 
ly as  possible,  while  in  the  new  type  of  powders  the 
constituents  required  to  produce  an  explosive  effect  are 
contained  in  the  molecules  of  the  chemical  compound. 
This  change  in  the  make-up  of  an  explosive  substance 
has  the  effect  of  increasing  the  speed  with  which  the 
explosive  action  takes  place,  and  fixing  with  accuracy 
and  definiteness  the  composition  of  every  particle  of 
the  explosive  material.  Accurate  control  of  the  com- 
position of  the  explosive,  uniformity  throughout  its 
entire  body  and  the  definiteness  of  its  composition  are 
factors  which  control  the  dependability,  accuracy, 
safety  and  all  other  elements  in  the  modern  practice  of 
gun  fire. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  charge 


124  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

01  exploding  powder  on  the  projectile  must  be  uniform 
for  every  shot,  otherwise  it  would  be  impossible  to  rely 
upon  the  propellant  to  obtain  duplicate  results.  The 
force  of  a  propellant  depends  upon  its  decomposition 
into  gases  at  greatly  elevated  temperatures,  and  the 
pressure  which  is  exerts  upon  the  breech  of  the  gun 
and  the  projectile  is  dependent  both  upon  the  amount 
of  gas  produced  and  the  tem^perature  generated  by  the 
explosion.  It  is  clear  from  this  that  any  slight  varia- 
tion in  the  composition  of  the  powders  would  result  in 
wide  variations  of  both  temperature  and  pressure.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  what  these  pressures  and  tem- 
peratures actually  are : 

Lbs.  per 
sq.  in.  Temp. 

Gunpowder   30,815     2910°C. 

Nitrocellulose  powders  (U.  S.  A.) . . . .  32,365  2676 °C. 
Ballistite  (nitroglycerine)    34,696     3384°C. 

In  view  of  the  importance  of  the  composition  con- 
trol, it  is  apparent  that  a  great  step*  in  advance  was 
made  when  mechanical  mixtures  such  as  gunpowder 
were  replaced  by  explosive  chemical  compounds,  such 
as  nitrocellulose  smokeless  powders.  The  explosion  of 
a  powder  in  the  breech  of  a  gun  for  the  purpose  of 
throwing  the  projectile  is  essentially  an  action  of  rapid 
combustion,  and  is  entirely  different  from  the  detona- 
tion characteristic  of  high  explosives,  such  as  nitro- 
glycerine. If  a  propellant  should  detonate,  it  would  be 
useless  as  a  propellant  and  the  detonation  would  doubt- 
less rupture  the  gun  without  discharging  the  projec- 
tile. It  is  extremely  important,  therefore,  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  powders,  that  the  element  of  detonation  be 
entirely  eliminated. 

The  most  common  form  of  smokeless  powder  is  made 
by  the  treatment  of  cotton  or  some  pure  form  of  cellu- 
lose with  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acid,  for  the 
formation  of  a  chemical  compound  known  as  nitrocel- 


DEMOLITIONS  s  125 

lulose.  There  are  several  kinds  of  nitrocellulose,  grad- 
ing from  the  lower  degrees  of  nitration  to  the  higher. 
The  lower  nitrocellulose  compounds  are  known  as  solu- 
ble nitrocellulose,  and  form  the  combustible  class  of 
propellant  explosives.  The  higher  degrees  of  nitration 
give  compounds  known  as  guncotton,  which  are  deton- 
atable  explosives.  This  latter  class  of  compounds,  how- 
ever, is  not  soluble,  and  this  difference  gives  a  clear  line 
of  demarkation  between  those  nitrocelluloses  which 
are  safe  to  use  as  propellant  powders  and  the  other 
class,  which  are  used  as  detonatable  explosives. 

How  Smokeless  Powder  Is  Made. 

The  soluble  nitrocelluloses  are  gelatinized  by  the  use 
of  various  solvents,  such  as  grain  alcohol  mixed  with 
ether  or  with  acetone.  When  the  solvent  is  driven  off 
a  hard,  bone-like  mass  is  left,  which  is  one  of  the  forms 
of  smokeless  powder.  The  explosive  pressure  of  these 
nitrocellulose  gels  may  be  increased  by  the  addition  of 
other  constituents ;  for  example,  nitroglycerine  is  fre- 
quently used,  especially  in  the  specifications  of  Eng- 
land and  France.  Some  of  the  powders  now  being  used 
in  Europe  contain  as  high  as  50  per  cent,  of  nitroglyce- 
rine. Under  ordinary  conditions  nitroglycerine  is  a 
highly  detonatable  explosive,  but  when  incorporated 
in  the  nitrocellulose  gel,  it  is  reduced  to  a  condition 
where  it  functions  as  a  combustible  propellant  and  is 
not  detonatable. 

The  nitrocellulose  gel  is  pressed  into  large  cakes 
which  are  transferred  to  a  squirting  press,  similar  to 
that  used  for  squirting  macaroni.  From  this  press  it 
is  squirted  into  continuous  rods  or  fibers  of  any  desired 
shape,  cut  up  into  short  lengths,  carefully  dried  to  re- 
move and  recover  the  last  traces  of  solvent,  and  then 
stored,  ready  for  use. 

Certain  modifications  in  the  formula,  changes  in  the 
shape  and  size  of  the  grains  and  other  alterations  are 


126  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

made  to  meet  the  various  military  and  sporting  require- 
ments. For  example,  the  powder  for  the  sixteen-inch 
coast  defence  guns  comes  in  the  form  of  pieces  approx- 
imately five-eighths  inch  in  diameter  and  two  inches 
long,  while  a  sample  of  the  sporting  powder  is  illus- 
trated by  fine  grains  the  size  of  a  mustard  seed. 

Stability  is  an  important  consideration  in  the  manu- 
facture of  smokeless  powder,  and  certain  means  have 
been  developed  which  render  them  more  stable  and  less 
liable  to  change  or  deterioration.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant chemicals,  used  almost  universally  for  this  pur- 
pose, is  di-phenyl-amine,  and  all  smokeless  powders 
contain  approximately  1  per  cent,  of  this  chemical. 
Prior  to  August,  1914,  practically  all  of  the  di-phenyl- 
amine  used  by  all  of  the  nations  of  the  world  was  made 
in  Germany  and  marketed  through  an  English  agency. 
Since  the  German  supply  has  been  cut  off,  the  manu- 
facture of  this  product  has  been  developed  in  this  coun- 
try, and  we  are  now  able  to  supply  our  own  needs. 

High  explosives,  as  a  class,  include  all  of  those  com- 
pounds and  mixtures  which  are  detonatable.  They  are 
used  both  in  engineering  practice  and  for  military  pur- 
poses as  disruptive  agents.  In  engineering  work,  the 
most  common  form  of  disruptive  agent  is  dynamite, 
which  is  a  mixture  of  nitroglycerine  with  some  form 
of  inert  or  active  absorbent  or  carrier  commonly  known 
in  the  dynamite  industry  as  ' '  dope. ' '  The  older  forms 
of  dynamite  were  made  by  soaking  up  the  liquid  nitro- 
glycerine in  infusorial  earth,  sawdust,  wood  fiber  or 
some  such  absorptive  material.  In  the  more  powerful 
dynamites  the  filler  is  also  an  explosive  substance,  such 
as  cotton,  ammonium  nitrate  and  similar  materials. 
Nitroglycerine,  the  basic  explosive  substance  of  dyna- 
mite, is  made  by  the  action  of  a  mixture  of  sulphuric 
and  nitric  acid  on  glycerine.  Glycerine,  as  you  will 
recall,  is  a  by-product  of  the  soap  industry  and  results 
from  the  treatment  of  a  fat  such  as  cottonseed  oil,  corn 


DEMOLITIONS  127 

oil,  tallow,  etc.,  with  an  alkali  to  form  a  soap  and  crude 
glycerine.  The  glycerine  recovered  from  this  opera- 
tion is  carefully  refined  and  purified  for  the  purpose  of 
making  nitroglycerine.  One  of  the  commercial  grades 
is  known  as  dynamite  glycerine.  Liquid  nitroglycerine 
is  an  extremely  dangerous  explosive.  Its  danger  lies 
in  the  fact  that  it  is  easily  detonated  and  explodes  with 
great  violence.  Its  incorporation  with  some  filler,  after 
the  inventions  of  Nobel,  so  that  it  may  be  treated  and 
handled  as  a  solid,  minimized  to  a  great  degree  the  ex- 
plosive danger.  Dynamite  could  not,  however,  be  used 
in  any  operations  such  as  the  filling  of  a  shell,  where  it 
would  be  subjected  to  the  severe  shock  of  firing,  with- 
out great  danger  of  its  detonating.  As  a  consequence, 
it  is  not  possible  to  use  dynamite  as  a  high  explosive 
charge  in  artillery  shells,  whereas  in  engineering  work 
it  is  a  perfectly  satisfactory  and  safe  disruptive  explo- 
sive. 

Guncotton,  that  is  to  say,  the  higher  degrees  of  nitra- 
tion of  ordinary  cellulose,  is  also  an  easily  detonatable 
explosive  and  cannot  be  used  in  any  operations  where 
it  would  be  subjected  to  severe  shock. 

Nitroglycerine  and  guncotton  are  used  in  certain 
classes  of  war  work,  for  bombs,  charging  of  torpedoes, 
etc.,  where  they  are  not  subjected  to  rough  handling  or 
to  the  shock  of  being  discharged  from  a  gun. 

Picric  Acid, 

High  explosives  for  the  charging  of  shells  must 
necessarily  be  selected  from  substances  which  are  de- 
tonatable by  the  use  of  a  proper  detonator,  yet  at  the 
same  time  will  not  be  detonated  when  subjected  to  the 
ordinary  methods  of  military  handling,  and  to  the 
shock  of  being  discharged  from  the  gun.  Detonatable 
explosives  to  meet  those  conditions  are.  of  compara- 
tively recent  origin.  The  oldest  compound  applied  for 
this  purpose  is  picric  acid.     The  use  of  this  substance 


128  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

for  loading  shells  was  first  suggested  in  1886  by  Tur- 
pin,  in  France.  The  compound  itself  has  been  well 
known  for  many  years  not  as  an  explosive,  but  as  one 
of  the  simplest  forms  of  a  yellow  dyestuff.  As  a  result 
of  Turpin's  investigations,  picric  acid  has  since  been 
adopted  in  England  under  the  name  of  Lyddite,  in 
France  under  the  name  of  Melinite,  and  the  Japanese 
used  the  compound  effectively  in  the  Russo-Japanese 
war  under  the  name  of  Shimose. 

Picric  acid  is  made  by  the  treatment  of  phenol  or 
carbolic  acid  with  a  mixture  of  sulphuric  and  nitric 
acid.  The  product,  a  yellow  crystalline  powder,  is  care- 
fully purified  and  used  either  alone  or  with  other  explo- 
sive compounds  for  shell  charges.  It  is  melted  and 
poured  into  the  shells,  leaving  suitable  space  for  the 
detonating  cap.  It  is  very  stable  to  shock  and  the  most 
powerful  of  the  shell  explosives  of  this  class.  It  has 
some  objectionable  characteristics  in  that  it  is  an  acid 
and  has  a  tendency  to  form  salts  which  are  unstable. 
Several  fatal  accidents  have  been  traced  to  the  forma- 
tion of  calcium  and  lead  salts,  which  are  especially 
sensitive.  Notwithstanding  these  objections,  however, 
picric  acid  has  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  important 
and  generally  used  explosives  in  the  present  war,  and 
it  is  being  manufactured  both  in  this  country  and 
abroad  in  enormous  quantities. 

The  phenol,  or  carbolic  acid,  from  which  picric  acid 
is  made  is  obtained  under  ordinary  conditions  from  the 
distillation  of  coal-tar.  The  enormous  demand  for 
picric  acid  under  war  conditions  has  created  a  corres- 
ponding demand  for  phenol,  and  the  price  has  ad- 
vanced from  19  cents  to  $1.50  per  pound.  Phenol  can 
be  made  and  has  been  made  for  a  number  of  years  in 
Germany,  synthetically,  from  benzol,  another  common 
constituent  of  coal-tar.  In  the  manufacture  of  phenol 
the  benzol  is  treated  successively  with  sulphuric  acid, 
lime,  soda  ash,  caustic  potash  or  soda,  with  the  final 


DEMOLITIONS  129 

production  of  crude  phenol.  This  crude  phenol  is  care- 
fully distilled  in  a  vacuum  and  produces  the  chemi- 
cally pure  product,  sample  of  which  is  shown.  A  large 
number  of  synthetic  phenol  plants  have  been  started  in 
the  United  States  since  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in 
Europe,  and  chemical  engineers  have  devoted  a  great 
deal  of  attention  to  the  development  of  this  industry 
in  America. 

Another  interesting  high  explosive  for  shells,  and 
the  one  which  is  said  to  have  been  so  eifective  in  the 
reduction  of  the  forts  at  Liege,  is  tri-nitro-toluol,  com- 
monly known  as  T.N.T.  This  product  is  made  by  the 
nitration  with  a  mixture  of  sulphuric  and  nitric  acid, 
of  toluol,  another  liquid  constituent  of  coal-tar.  The 
increased  demand  for  toluol  has  run  the  price  from  40 
cents  a  gallon  before  the  war  to  as  high  as  $5  or  $6  a 
gallon.  Numerous  processes  have  been  more  or  less 
successfully  developed  for  the  manufacture  of  toluol. 
One  of  the  most  important  of  these  is  our  own  Rittman 
process,  which  is  in  successful  operation  in  Pittsburgh, 
manufacturing  a  mixture  of  toluol  and  benzol. 

T.N.T.  is  a  light  yellowish  solid,  very  stable  to  shocks 
and  abrasions,  and  is  in  every  way  an  ideal  disruptive 
explosive,  although  not  quite  so  powerful  as  picric  acid. 
It  is  non-acid  and  does  not  form  unstable  compounds. 
It  is  practically  impossible  to  explode  a  charge  of 
T.  N.  T.  except  by  the  use  of  powerful  detonators. 

Detonators  are  a  class  of  compounds  which  explode 
with  extreme  violence  and  sharpness.  On  account  of 
their  sharp  explosive  wave,  they  have  the  power  of 
setting  up  a  corresponding  explosive  wave  in  a  large 
number  of  otherwise  more  or  less  stable  substances, 
such  as  trinitrotoluol  and  picric  acid,  and  with  fair 
ease  such  substances  as  nitroglycerine  and  gun-cotton. 
The  class  of  compounds  known  as  metallic  fulminates 


130  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

are  commonly  used  as  detonators.  The  most  important 
of  these  is  the  fulminate  of  mercury.  This  product  is 
made  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  and  alcohol  on  mer- 
cury. It  is  a  grayish  white  crystalline  powder  and  is 
stored  for  safety  in  small  bags  suspended  in  a  tank  of 
water.  It  detonates  by  shock,  as,  for  example,  by  the 
firing  pin  of  a  gun,  or  by  heat  of  approximately  200 
deg.  C,  as  by  a  fuse.  Small  charges  of  these  detona- 
tors are  imbedded  in  the  main  explosive  charge,  and 
the  sharp  shock  of  their  explosion  detonates  the  entire 
mass.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  by  the  use  of  these 
detonators  it  is  possible  to  explode  the  shell  either  by 
a  time  fuse  or  by  impact,  and  both  methods  are  used 
according  to  the  character  of  the  operation. 

How  to  Stop  the  War, 

You  have  doubtless  noticed  that  the  same  chemicals 
are  used  in  some  phase  or  other,  in  each  one  of  the 
processes  of  manufacturing  high  explosives,  and 
smokeless  powders.  I  refer  particularly  to  the  use  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  nitric  acid.  '  Sulphuric  acid  is 
doubtless  the  most  important  of  these,  because  it  is 
essential  not  only  in  making  all  explosives,  but  in  the 
manufacture  of  nitric  acid  itself.  Sulphuric  acid  may 
be  said,  therefore,  to  be  the  basic  chemical  on  which 
the  entire  war  is  dependent,  and  there  is  nothing  which 
would  more  effectively  stop  a  war  than  to  stop  the 
production  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  raw  materials  for 
making  sulphuric  acid  are,  (1)  sulphur,  or  (2)  pyrites, 
or  (3)  sulphur  gases  from  smelting  operations.  The 
sulphur  used  in  America  comes  from  the  deposits  in 
Louisiana  and  Texas,  where  it  literally  flows  from  the 
earth  at  the  rate  of  500  to  1000  tons  per  day  by  the 
famous  Frasch  process.  The  pyrites,  while  produced 
to  a  small  extent  in  this  country,  comes  largely  from 
Spain  or  Portugal.  The  smelter  gases  are  necessarily 
available  only  at  the  points  where  the  smelting  opera- 


DEMOLITIONS  131 

tions  are  carried  out.  It  is  obvious  that  we  would  be 
seriously  handicapped  in  case  the  Spanish  pyrites  sup- 
ply was  cut  off,  and  it  is  even  more  serious  to  note 
that  the  sulphur  deposits  of  Louisiana  and  Texas  are 
both  near  the  coast  and  are  undefended.  The  loss 
of  control  of  these  two  principal  raw  materials  for 
sulphuric  acid  m,anuf acture  would  literally  put  a  stop 
to  ammunition  production  in  this  country. 

Chemical  Preparedness. 

Another  fundamental  raw  material  of  the  explosive 
industry  is  nitric  acid,  which  is  obtained  from  nitrate 
of  soda,  the  sole  source  of  supply  of  which,  for  this 
country,  is  Chili.  No  progress  has  been  made,  and 
very  little  if  any  interest  has  been  shown  in  the  devel- 
opment of  an  independent  self-contained  source  of 
supply  for  nitrates  or  nitric  acid  in  America.  It  is 
clearly  apparent  that  a  few  fast  cruisers  could  cut  off 
our  supply  of  nitrate,  and  the  stock  available  in  this 
country  would  not  enable  us  to  carry  on  a  defensive 
war  more  than  two  or  three  months.  One  might  nat- 
urally ask,  what  is  being  done  to  safeguard  this  country 
against  such  a  contingency,  and  the  answer  is,  nothing. 

The  previous  speaker  referred  to  certain  influences 
which  appear  in  diplomatic  dealings,  but  it  is  my  be- 
lief that  one  of  the  most  potent  influences  in  a  success- 
ful diplomacy  is  to  be  found  in  the  adequate  and  in- 
telligent solution  of  some  of  the  problems  presented  in 
connection  with  the  industries  now  under  discussion. 
One  of  our  statesmen  has  declared  that  an  army  of  a 
million  men  might  be  provided  in  a  few  days,  but  what 
egirthly  good  would  a  million  men  be  if  they  are  not 
provided  with  the  modem  facilities  and  machinery  for 
conducting  a  defense.  The  most  apparent  lesson  to 
be  drawn  from  the  conditions  in  Europe  is  that  there 
is  a  great  deal  in  an  army  besides  men.  The  fact  that 
the  power  of  defence  in  the  United  States  could  be 


132  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

rendered  ineffective  in  two  or  three  months  by  a  few 
warships  stopping  the  supply  of  nitrate  from  Chili, 
taking  possession  of  the  sulphur  deposits  of  Louisiana 
and  Texas,  and  crippling  other  important  industrial 
centers,  is  well  known  in  every  capital  in  Europe,  and 
such  knowledge  does  not  tend  to  add  force  nor  em- 
phasis to  our  diplomatic  notes. 

Germany  has  clearly  indicated  the  solution  of  the 
nitrate  problem.  She  has  been  cut  off  from  the  nitrate 
supply  of  Chili  and  from  the  pyrites  supply  from 
Spain  for  months,  but  long  before  that  condition  de- 
veloped, she  had  worked  out  and  put  into  operation 
within  her  own  borders  processes  for  manufacturing 
nitric  acid  synthetically.  This  result  is  accomplished 
in  Germany  by  three  important  industrial  processes 
which  have  been  developed  within  the  last  ten  or  fifteen 
years:  (1)  The  process  for  the  direct  oxidation  of 
the  nitrogen  of  the  air,  (2)  the  process  of  oxidizing 
ammonia  made  by  the  Haber  method  of  combining  ni- 
trogen and  hydrogen,  in  the  presence  of  catalytic 
agents,  and  (3)  another  process  oxidizing  ammonia 
made  by  the  syanamid  process,  in  which  the  nitrogen 
of  the  air  is  fixed  in  calcium  carbide,  and  later  con- 
verted into  ammonia.  The  power  of  Germany  would 
have  been  broken  months  ago,  had  it  not  been  for  the 
foresight  and  the  skill  required  to  provide  an  inde- 
pendent supply  of  the  fundamental  chemicals  required 
in  explosive  manufacture.'' 

APPLICATIONS. 

Military  Explosives. 

Of  these  explosives,  hlack  powder  will  seldom  be 
available  and  therefore  will  be  little  used. 

Gun-cotton  is  powerful  and  efficient,  but  will  not  be 
available  unless  carried  along.  Dry  gun-cotton  is  very 
sensitive,  and  therefore  dangerous  to  transport,  so  that 


DEMOLITIONS  133 

in  carrying  this  explosive  an  additional  weight  of  20 
to  25  per  cent,  of  water  must  be  carried,  this  being 
about  the  degree  of  saturation  required  to  make  it 
safe.  A  small  quantity  of  dry  gun-cotton  must  also  be 
carried,  as  this  is  the  only  satisfactory  primer  for  the 
wet  material.  The  dry  charge  is  fired  by  the  ordinary 
fulminate  primer. 

Rack-a-rock  has  the  advantage  of  perfect  safety  in 
transportation,  being  composed  of  two  substances, 
neither  of  which  is  explosive.  Powdered  chlorate  of 
potash  is  put  up  in  cloth  bags  the  size  of  a  dynamite 
cartridge.  These  are  soaked  in  mono-nitrobenzol,  al- 
lowed to  drain  for  a  minute,  and  then  may  be  primed 
and  fired  similarly  to  dynamite.  This  explosive,  also, 
must  be  carried  to  be  available  in  the  field. 

Trinitro-tohiol  is  perfectly  safe  for  any  character 
of  transportation,  being  inert  to  physical  shock,  and 
is  detonated  only  by  a  powerful  fulminate  cap.  It 
comes  in  three  forms,  the  natural  granular  substance 
in  paper  cartridges,  the  TNT  blocks  into  which  it  is 
pressed  for  the  U.  S.  Engineers,  and  trotol  gelatine, 
the  preparation  of  Capt.  Woodward  of  the  22nd  Corps 
of  Engineers.  This  substance  is  very  powerful,  quick 
detonating  and  shattering.  It  has  not  the  noxious 
fumes  of  dynamite,  will  not  freeze,  and  is  insensitive 
to  shock.  Its  great  disadvantage  lies  in  the  fact  that, 
like  gun-cotton  and  rack-a-rock,  it  must  be  carried  to 
be  available  when  desired. 

The  well-known  dynamite,  reliable  when  handled 
carefully,  available  at  any  country  store,  and  familiar 
to  nearly  every  engineer  and  foreman,  will  probably 
form  the  bulk  of  the  explosive  used  by  the  army  in  the 
field. 

Firing  Charges. 

These  explosives,  with  the  exception  of  black  powder, 
are  of  the  detonating  variety,  and  may  be  exploded  by 


134  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

means  of  the  fulminate  cap,  either  by  fuse  or  by  elec- 
tricity. The  former  is  of  two  varieties,  Bickford,  which 
is  white,  has  a  twisted  surface,  and  burns  at  the  rate 
of  two  feet  per  minute,  and  the  Instantaneous  fuse, 
which  is  red,  has  a  rather  smooth,  woven  surface,  and 
burns  at  the  rate  of  about  120  feet  per  second.  Electric 
ignition  is  preferable,  as  the  time  of  firing  is  under 
the  control  of  the  operator  and  a  number  of  charges 
may  be  fired  simultaneously.  When  it  is  required  to 
fire  several  charges  simultaneously  by  fuse,  a  length 
of  instantaneous  fuse  should  be  connected  to  the  primer 
of  each  charge,  and  the  various  free  ends  gathered 
into  a  small  bag  of  powder.  This  is  ignited  by  a  piece 
of  Bickford  fuse,  cut  long  enough  to  allow  the  escape 
of  the  powder  man. 

Demolition  hy  Explosives. 

The  most  important  demolitions  affect  lines  of  com- 
munication, and  must  not  be  undertaken  except  as  a 
matter  of  military  necessity  and  under  positive  writ- 
ten orders  fromi  the  commander  of  the  field  forces. 
Large  bridges  are  attacked  in  the  chords,  near  the 
abutments  where  the  chord  sections  are  smallest.  All 
longitudinal  members  should  be  cut.  Arches  are  cut 
at  the  crown  if  single,  or  if  double,  at  the  pier  between 
them.  Trees  not  over  a  foot  in  diameter  may  be  felled 
by  firing  a  charge  in  the  shape  of  a  chain  of  dynamite 
cartridges  encircling  their  trunks.  Twenty  per  cent,  of 
this  amount  will  have  the  same  effect  if  placed  in  a 
hole  bored  in  the  trunk.  Used  in  this  latter  way,  one 
stick  of  40  per  cent,  dynamite  will  cut  about  one  square 
foot  of  timber. 

Railroad  track  is  best  destroyed  by  mud-capping 
four  charges  of  about  one  stick  each  against  the  rail 
webs,  so  as  to  cut  each  rail  in  two  places.  The  sec- 
tion of  track  is  then  turned  over,  the  ties  pried  off  and 


DEMOLITIONS 


135 


a  bonfire  made  of  them.  The  rails  are  heated  in  the 
fire  and  twisted^  using  pincers,  crowbars  through  the 
splice-bolt  holes,  or  any  manner  of  gripping  the  rail 
firmly.  Rails  thus  twisted  cannot  be  used  again  until 
re-rolled,  whereas  if  they  are  simply  bent  around  a 
tree,  they  may  be  roughly  straightened  in  the  field.  If 
it  be  desired  to  destroy  the  track  without  permanent 
damage  to  the  material,  the  fish-plates  may  be  taken 
off  at  the  ends  of  a  long  section,  the  loosened  portion 
lifted  by  a  large  force  of  men  and  rolled  down  the 
embankment.  It  must  be  remembered  that  unless  the 
demolition  be  most  thorough,  good  railway  troops  can 
repair  track  about  as  rapidly  as  it  can  be  destroyed. 

Small  bridges,  intended  to  be  demolished  as  soon  as 
the  immediate  need  for  them  has  passed,  are  usually 
prepared  for  demolition  during  construction,  so  that 
the  charges  may  be  fired  when  the  last  troops  have 
crossed,  and  before  a  closely  pursuing  enemy  can  fol- 
low. 

Fig.  41  shows  the  placing  of  a  charge  of  rack-a-rock 


FIG    41.      PLACING    CHARGE 


136 


PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 


in  a  spar  bridge,  Fig.  42  the  explosion,  and  Fig.  43  the 
destroyed  bridge. 


FIG.    42.      THE    EXPLOSION 


FIG.   43.      BRIDGE  DESTROYED 


DEMOLITIONS  137 

For  the  destruction  of  woods,  villages,  etc.,  which 
must  be  razed  to  give  a  clear  field  of  fire,  explosives 
will  not  be  wasted  unless  great  haste  is  required.  Free 
use  of  the  axe,  and  the  assistance  of  troops  from  the 
infantry,  will  accomplish  much  in  a  short  time.  If  the 
smoke  is  not  objectionable  as  betraying  the  position, 
this  work  may  be  done  largely  by  means  of  fire. 


XII. 
MILITARY  BRIDGES. 

Military  bridges  are  of  many  types.  From  the  felled 
log  that  may  enable  a  single  messenger  to  cross  with 
an  important  order,  to  the  railwaj'-  trestle  that  carries 
the  supply  trains,  all  sorts  and  sizes  of  bridges  find 
their  application  to  military  purposes.   Outside  of  cer- 
tain im^provised  types,  however,  and  others  that  are 
little  used,  military  bridges  may  be  grouped  in  four 
general  classes:  truss,  pile,  spar  and  floating.    Truss 
bridges  find  their  principal  application  along  the  line 
of  communications  and  will  be  little  used  at  the  front. 
Loads. 
The  loads  which  military  bridges  will  have  to  sup- 
port are  about  as  follows,  in  pounds  per  linear  foot  of 
bridge : 
Infantry,  single  file,  heavy  marching  order....  140  pounds 

double  file,        "  "  "     280 

col.  of  fours     "  "  "     560       " 

Cavalry,    single    file    196       " 

double   file    392 

"         column  of  fours   784       " 

Weights  of  Guns  and  Military  Carriages, 
Fully  Loaded  for  Traveling.  * 

•  Distance      Width 

Weight  on  the  between     of  wheel 

Wheels.  Axles,       Track, 

Front  Hind  c.  to  c.      c.  to  c 

Lbs.  Lbs.  Ft.    Ins.           Ft. 

3.2-in.  B.  L.  F.  gun 1,735  2,070  8     7             5 

3.6-in.  B.  L.  F.  gun 1,870  2,415  8    9            5 

3.2-in.   caisson    1,775  2,805  8    5%        5 

3.6-in.   caisson    1,930  3,070  8     6            5 

Battery  and  forge  wagon..     1,130  2,130  8    6            5 

5-in.  siege  rifle   2,530  6,425  8    li^        5 

7-in.  siege  howitzer 2,510  6,920  8    1^4        5 

Maxim   automatic    1,950  1,230  7    0            5 

Catling    754  1,075  7    0            5 

Army      escort     wagon      (4 

mules)     2,500  2,500  5    9i^        5 

Army  wagon  (6  mules)....     3,500  3,500  6    1^^^        5 

*From   Engineer  Field  Manual. 
138 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


139 


FIG.  44.  ^  KNOTS 


140  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

Knots  and  Lashings. 

A  knowledge  of  a  number  of  the  common  knots, 
splices  and  lashings  is  essential  to  the  construction  of 
military  bridges,  particularly  those  of  the  spar  type. 
Those  described  herein  are  taken  from  the  Engineer 
Field  Manual  : 

The  following  knots  are  most  useful  in  bridging. 

Overhand  knot,  used  at  the  end  of  a  rope  to  prevent 
unreeving  or  to  prevent  the  end  of  the  rope  from  slip- 
ping through  a  block. 

Figure-of-eight  knot,  used  for  purposes  similar  to 
above. 

Square  or  reef  knot,  commonly  used  for  joining  two 
ropes  of  the  same  size.  The  standing  and  running 
parts  of  each  rope  must  pass  through  the  loop  of  the 
other  in  the  same  direction,  i.  e.,  from  above  downward 
or  vice  versa ;  otherwise  a  granny  is  made,  which  is  a 
useless  knot  that  will  not  hold.  The  reef  knot  can  be 
upset  by  taking  one  end  of  the  rope  and  its  standing 
part  and  pulling  them  in  opposite  directions.  With 
dry  rope  a  reef  knot  is  as  strong  as  the  rope ;  with  wet 
rope  it  slips  before  the  rope  breaks,  while  a  double 
sheet  bend  is  found  to  hold. 

The  thief  knot,  commonly  mistaken  for  a  reef  knot, 
should  be  avoided  as  it  will  not  hold.  The  figure 
shows  that  the  end  of  each  rope  turns  around  the 
standing  part  instead  of  around  the  end  of  the  other, 
as  in  a  reef  knot. 

Single  sheet  iend,  weaver's  knot,  used  for  joining 
ropes  together,  especially  when  unequal  in  size.  It  is 
more  secure  than  the  reef  knot  but  more  difficult  to 
untie. 

Double  sheet  bend,  used  also  for  fastening  ropes  of 
unequal  sizes,  especially  wet  ones,  and  is  more  secure 
than. the  single  sheet  bend. 

Two  half  hitches,  especially  useful  for  belaying,  or 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


Timbei  birtch. 


Timber  hrtch  and  Half  hitch. 


Hawser  Bend. 


Bowline. 


Running  Bowline. 


FIG.   45.      KNOTS 


142  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

making  fast  the  end  of  a  rope  round  its  own  standing 
part.  The  end  may  be  lashed  down  or  seized  to  the 
standing  part  with  a  piece  of  spun  yarn ;  this  adds  to 
its  security  and  prevents  slipping. 

This  knot  should  never  be  used  for  hoisting  a  spar. 

Bound  turn  and  tivo  half  Miches,  like  the  preceding 
except  that  a  turn  is  first  taken  round  the  spar  or  post. 

Fisherman's  iend  or  anchor  knot,  used  for  fasten- 
ing a  rope  to  a  ring  or  anchor.  Take  two  turns  round 
the  iron,  then  a  half  hitch  round  the  standing  part  and 
between  the  rings  and  the  turns,  lastly  a  half  hitch 
round  the  standing  part. 

^  Clove  hitch,  generally  used  for  fastening  a  rope  at 
right  angles  to  a  spar  or  at  the  commencement  of  a 
lashing.  If  the  end  of  the  spar  is  free,  the  hitch  is 
made  by  first  forming  two  loops,  placing  the  right-hand 
loop  over  the  other  one  and  slipping  the  double  loop 
over  the  end  of  the  spar.  If  this  can  not  be  done,  pass 
the  end  of  the  rope  round  the  spar,  bring  it  up  to  the 
right  of  the  standing  part,  cross  over  the  latter,  make 
another  turn  round  the  spar,  and  bring  up  the  end 
between  the  spar,  the  last  turn,  and  the  standing  part. 
When  used  for  securing  guys  to  sheer  legs,  etc.,  the 
knot  should  be  made  with  a  long  end,  which  is  formed 
into  two  half  hitches  round  the  standing  part  and 
secured  to  it  with  spun  yarn. 

Timier  hitch,  used  for  hauling  and  lifting  spars.  It 
can  easily  be  loosed  when  the  strain  is  taken  off,  but 
will  not  slip  under  a  pull.  When  used  for  hauling 
spars,  a  half  hitch  is  added  near  the  end  of  the  spar. 

Telegraph  hitch,  used  for  hoisting  or  hauling  a  spar. 

Hawser  bend,  used  for  joining  two  large  cables. 
Each  end  is  seized  to  its  own  standing  part. 

Bowline  forms  a  loop  that  will  not  slip.  Make  loop 
with  the  standing  part  of  the  rope  underneath,  pass 
the  end  from  below  through  the  loop,  over  the  part 
round  the  standing  part  of  the  rope,  and  then  down 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


143 


Sling  for  barrel  horUontal* 


Sling  for  barrel  vertical. 


FIG.   46.      KNOTS 


144  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

through  the  loop  c.  The  length  of  bight  depends  upon 
the  purpose  for  which  the  knot  is  required. 

Bowline  on  a  Mght.  The  first  part  is  made  like  the 
above,  with  the  double  part  of  a  rope ;  then  the  bight 
a  is  pulled  through  sufficiently  to  allow  it  to  be  bent 
past  d  and  come  up  in  the  position  shown.  It  makes  a 
more  comfortable  sling  for  a  man  than  a  single  bight. 

Running  bowline.  A  slip  noose  formed  by  a  bowline 
running  on  the  standing  part  of  the  line. 

Barrel  Sling.  To  sling  a  barrel  or  box  horizontally, 
make  a  bowline  with  a  long  bight  and  apply  it  as 
shown. 

To  sling  a  barrel  vertically,  make  an  overhaild  knot 
on  top  of  the  two  parts  of  the  rope ;  open  out  the  knot 
and  slip  each  half  of  it  down  the  sides  of  the  cask; 
secure  with  a  bowline. 

Cat's-paw.  Form  two  equal  bights.  Take  one  in 
each  hand  and  roll  them  along  the  standing  part  till 
surrounded  by  three  turns  of  the  standing  part ;  then 
bring  both  loops  (or  bights)  together  and  pass  over 
the  hook  of  a  block. 

Sheep  shank,  used  for  shortening  a  rope  or  to  pass 
by  a  weak  spot ;  a  half  hitch  is  taken  with  the  standing 
parts  around  the  bights. 

Rolling  hitch,  used  for  hauling  a  large  rope  or  cable. 
Two  turns  are  taken  round  the  large  rope  in  the  direc- 
tion in  which  it  is  to  be  hauled,  and  one  half  hitch  on 
the  other  side  of  the  hauling  part.  A  useful  knot  and 
quickly  made. 

For  armored  cable,  or  wet  manila  rope,  the  hitch 
must  be  made  with  a  strap  of  rope  yarn.  Rope  will 
not  hold. 

Blackwall  hitch,  used  for  attaching  a  single  rope  to 
a  hook  of  a  block  for  hoisting. 

Mooring  hiiot.  Take  two  turns  round  the  mooring  or 
snubbing  post,  pass  the  free  end  of  the  rope  under  the 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


145 


Blackwall  Hitch. 


Mooring  Knot. 


Carrlcl<  Bend» 


FIG.  47.      KNOTS 


146  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

standing  part ;  take  a  third  turn  above  the  other  and 
pass  the  free  end  between  the  two  upper  turns. 

Carrick  hend,  much  used  for  hawsers  and  to  fasten 
guys  to  derricks. 

Wall  knot,  and 

Crown  on  wall,  both  used  for  finishing  off  the  ends 
of  ropes  to  prevent  unstranding. 

To  make  a  short  splice,  unlay  the  strands  of  each 
rope  for  a  convenient  length.  Bring  the  rope  ends 
together  so  that  each  strand  of  one  rope  lies  between 
the  two  consecutive  strands  of  the  other  rope.  Draw 
the  strands  of  the  first  rope  along  the  second  and  grasp 
with  one  hand.  Then  work  a  free  strand  of  the  second 
rope  over  the  nearest  strand  of  the  first  rope  and  under 
the  second  strand,  working  in  a  direction  opposite  to 
the  twist  of  the  rope.  The  same  operation  applied  to 
all  the  strands  will  give  the  result  shown  in  Fig.  48. 
The  splicing  may  be  continued  in  the  same  manner 
to  any  extent  and  the  free  ends  of  the  strands  may  be 
cut  off  when  desired.  The  splice  may  be  neatly  tapered 
by  cutting  out  a  few  fibers  from  each  strand  each  time 
it  is  passed  through  the  rope.  Rolling  under  a  board 
or -the  foot  will  make  the  splice  compact. 

Lo7ig  splice.  Unlay  the  strands  of  each  rope  for  a 
convenient  length  and  bring  together  as  for  a  short 
splice.  Unlay  to  any  desired  length  a  strand,  d,  of  one 
rope,  laying  in  its  place  the  nearest  strand,  a,  of  the 
other  rope.  Repeat  the  operation  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection with  two  other  strands,  c  and  /.  Strands  h  and 
e  are  shown  secured  by  unlaying  half  of  each  for  a 
suitable  length  and  laying  half  of  the  other  in  place 
of  the  unlayed  portions,  the  loose  ends  being  passed 
through  the  rope.  This  splice  is  used  when  the  rope  is 
to  run  through  a  block.  The  diameter  of  the  rope  is 
not  enlarged  at  the  splice.  The  ends  of  the  strands 
should  not  be  trimmed  off  close  until  the  splice  has 
been  thoroughly  stretched  by  work. 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


147 


Short  Splice. 


Short  Sprree 


Short  Splice. 


Long  Splice. 


Lor^g  Splice. 


FIG.  48.      SPLICES 


148  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

Eye  splice.  Unlay  a  convenient  length  of  rope.  Pass 
one  loose  strand,  a,  under  one  strand  of  the  rope,  form- 
ing an  eye  of  the  proper  size.  Pass  a  second  loose 
strand  of  the  rope  next  to  the  strand  which  secures  a. 
Pass  the  third  strand,  c,  under  the  strand  next  to  that 
which  secures  fe.  Draw  all  taut  and  continue  and  com- 
plete as  for  a  short  splice. 

To  lash  a  transom  to  an  upright  spar,  transom  in 
front  of  upright,  a  clove  hitch  is  made  round  the  up- 
right a  few  inches  below  the  transom.  The  lashing  is 
brought  under  the  transom,  up  in  front  of  it,  horizon- 
tally behind  the  upright,  down  in  front  of  the  transom 
and  above  the  clove  hitch.  The  following  turns  are 
kept  outside  the  previous  ones  on  one  spar  and  inside 
on  the  other,  not  riding  over  the  turns  already  made. 
Four  turns  or  more  are  required.  A  couple  of  frap- 
ping  turns  are  then  taken  between  the  spars,  around 
the  lashing,  and  the  lashing  is  finished  off  either  round 
one  of  the  spars  or  any  part  of  the  lashing  through 
which  the  rope  can  be  passed.  The  final  clove  hitch 
should  never  be  made  around  the  spar  on  the  side 
toward  which  the  stress  is  to  come,  as  it  may  jam  and 
be  difficult  to  remove.  The  lashing  must  be  well 
beaten  with  handspike  or  pick  handle  to  tighten  it  up. 
This  is  called  a  square  lashing. 

Lashing  for  a  pair  of  shears.  The  two  spars  for  the 
shears  are  laid  alongside  of  each  other  with  their  butts 
on  the  ground,  the  points  below  where  the  lashing  is  to 
be  resting  on  a  skid.  A  clove  hitch  is  made  round  one 
spar  and  the  lashing  taken  loosely  eight  or  nine  times 
about  the  two  spars  above  it  without  riding.  A  couple 
of  frapping  turns  are  then  taken  between  the  spars 
and  the  lashing  is  finished  off  with  a  clove  hitch  above 
the  turns  on  one  of  the  spars.  The  butts  of  the  spars 
are  then  opened  out  and  a  sling  passed  over  the  fork, 
to  which  the  block  is  hooked  or  lashed,  and  fore  and 
back  guys  are  made  fast  with  clove  hitches  to  the  bot- 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


149 


FIG.    49.      LASHINGS 


150  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

torn  and  top  spars,  respectively,  just  above  the  fork. 
(Top  of  Fig.  49). 

To  lash  three  spars  together  as  for  a  gin  or  tripod. 
Mark  on  each  spar  the  distance  from  the  butt  to  the 
center  of  the  lashing.  Lay  two  of  the  spars  parallel  to 
each  other  with  an  interval  a  little  greater  than  the 
diameter.  Eest  their  tips  on  a  skid  and  lay  the  third 
spar  between  them  with  its  butt  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion so  that  the  marks  on  the  three  spars  will  be  in  line. 
Make  a  clove  hitch  on  one  of  the  outer  spars  below  the 
lashing  and  take  eight  or  nine  loose  turns  around  the 
three.  Take  a  couple  of  frapping  turns  between  each 
pair  of  spars  in  succession  and  finish  with  a  clove  hitch 
on  the  central  spar  above  the  lashing.  Pass  a  sling 
over  the  lashing  and  the  tripod  is  ready  for  raising. 

To  prepare  a  fastening  in  the  ground  for  the  at- 
tachment of  guys  or  purchases,  stout  pickets  are  driven 
into  the  ground  one  behind  the  other,  in  the  line  of 
pull.  The  head  of  each  picket  except  the  last  is  secured 
by  a  lashing  to  the  foot  of  the  picket  next  behind.  The 
lashings  are  tightened  by  rack  sticks,  the  points  of 
which  are  driven  into  the  ground  to  hold  them  in  posi- 
tion. The  distance  between  the  stakes  should  be  several 
times  the  height  of  the  stake  above  the  ground. 

Another  form  requiring  more  labor  but  having  much 
greater  strength  is  called  a  deadman^  and  consists  of 
a  log  laid  in  a  transverse  trench  with  an  inclined  trench 
intersecting  it  at  its  niiddle  point.  The  cable  is  passed 
down  the  inclined  trench,  takes  several  round  turns  on 
the  log,  and  is  fastened  to  it  by  half  hitches  and  marlin 
stopping.  If  the  cable  is  to  lead  horizontally  or  inclined 
downward,  it  should  pass  over  a  log  at  the  outlet  of  the 
inclined  trench.  If  the  cable  is  to  lead  upward  this 
log  is  not  necessary,  but  the  anchor  log  must  be  buried 
deeper. 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


151 


FIG.   50.      GROUND  TACKLE 


152  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

Improvised  Bridges, 

Suspension  bridges  are  sometimes  built,  but  are  not 
generally  satisfactory  as  a  field  type,  owing  to  their 
lack  of  stiffness.  With  the  labor  necessary  to  properly 
construct  such  a  bridge,  with  an  adequate  stiffening 
truss,  a  more  serviceable  truss  or  pile  bridge  might  be 
built.  However,  where  the  material  at  hand  and  the 
locality  are  particularly  suited  to  a  suspension  bridge, 
there  should  be  no  hesitancy  in  undertaking  its  con- 
struction. The  tow^ers  may  be  lashed  spar  bents,  the 
anchorages  deadmen,  the  cable  steel  wire  rope,  the  sus- 
penders of  wire,  and  the  floor  system  of  round  timber 
or  ponton  material.  Jf  a  stiffening  truss  is  used,  it 
will  probably  be  of  the  Howe  or  Pratt  type  of  bracing, 
with  timber  struts  and  twisted  wire  diagonals. 

An  excellent  foot  suspension  bridge  may  be  made 
from  Page  woven  wire  fencing,  three  lengths  being 
used,  one  for  the  bottom  and  one  for  each  side.  The 
sides  may  be  wrapped  around  convenient  trees  or  well 
braced  vertical  posts  and  firmly  fastened  with  staples. 
The  bottom  is  fastened  in  a  similar  manner  to  a  log 
which  is  staked  back  of  the  supporting  trees.  The  fioor 
beams  are  round  or  square  timbers  resting  on  the  bot- 
tom wires  of  the  sides  and  the  outer  wires  of  the  bottom 
section  of  fencing.  Floor  boards  may  be  nailed  or 
lashed  longitudinally  to  the  floor  beams,  or  placed 
transversely  upon  stringers  resting  on  the  beams.  Such 
a  bridge  is  good  for  a  span  of  150  or  more  feet,  can  be 
constructed  in  an  hour  if  the  materials  are  at  hand, 
and  will  bear  fully  equipped  infantrymen  at  intervals 
of  four  or  five  feet.  The  sag  should  be  about  one-tenth 
of  the  span. 

When  only  a  number  of  short  boards  are  available 
for  a  bridge,  as  for  instance  those  obtained  from  pack- 
ing cases,  a  sort  of  latticed  girder  truss  is  sometimes 
built  by  nailing  them  together  to  form  chords  and  diag- 
onals.   Similar  material  is  also  made  into  a  bowstring 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


153 


FIG.    51.      FLOATING    PILE-DRIVER 


154 


PREPAREDNESS   AND  THE  ENGINEER 


truss,  the  chords  being  formed  of  boards  set  on  edge, 
inclosing  the  ends  of  the  web  members.  These  bridges 
must  be  considered  as  expedients  only  and  not  as  ac- 
cepted militar^'^  types. 

Pile  Bridges. 

Pile  bridges  will  probably  be  the  most  used.  The 
piles  will  be  driven  by  hand  mauls  or  by  a  field  pile 
driver  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  51.  Here  the  platform  is 
formed  of  the  ponton  material,  the  leads  are  ponton 
floor  stringers,  the  hammer  a  section  of  tree  trunk,  and 
it  is  operated  by  man  power.  A  similar  driver  is  built 
to  rest  upon  the  completed  portion  of  a  bridge,  canti- 
levering  out  to  the  bent  under  construction.  The  outer 


Ravine 

FIG.    52.      TBESTLE   FOR    SPAR   BRIDGE 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


155 


end  is  trussed  up  by  twisted  ropes,  passing  from  the 
bottom  of  the  leads,  over  king  posts,  and  down  to  the 
rear  end  of  the  driver,  which  is  counterweighted  by 
logs  or  sand  bags.  The  floor  of  the  completed  bridge  is 
of  plank  if  available,  or  caps,  stringers,  floor  and  guard 
timbers  may  all  be  of  round  stuff,  laid  corduroy  style. 
Spar  Bridges. 

Spar  bridges  are  in  a  distinct  class  by  themselves. 
They  have  been  developed  solely  by  military  engineers, 
and  their  great  advantage  lies  in  the  fact  that  they 
may  be  constructed  entirely  of  rough  timber,  cut  at 
the  site,  and  put  together  by  means  of  rope  lashings. 
A  stream  or  ravine  with  steep  banks  and  of  no  great 
width  is  particularly  suited  for  a  spar  bridge. 

Single  lock  bridge.  A  trestle  as  shown  in  Fig.  52  is 
built  upon  each  bank,  the  top  of  one  being  made  of  a 

/ 


FIG.    53.      ERECTION    OF    SPAR   BRIDGE 


156 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


MILITARY   BRIDGES 


157 


width  to  pass  readily  between  the  standards  of  the 
other.  (Fig.  53.)  The  two  are  then  lowered  into  the 
ravine  and  their  transoms  locked.  (Fig.  54.)  A 
road-hearer  is  placed  in  the  fork  of  the  standards,  and 
forms  a  support  in  the  middle  of  the  span.  In  a  double 
lock  bridge  (Fig.  55)  the  trestles  do  not  interlock,  but 
are  held  apart  by  two  road  bearers,  lashed  to  two 


Double  lock  Bridge. 


'j^ij^^ 


Single  Sling  Bridge 

FIG.  55.      DOUBLE  LOCK  AND  SINGLE  SLING  BRIDGES 

stringers  which  rest  upon  the  transoms  of  the  trestles. 
The  bridge  thus  has  two  supports  and  three  panels. 

Single  Sling  Bridge.  If  the  standards  of  a  double 
lock  bridge  are  extended  to  a  junction  above  the  center 
of  the  bridge  (Fig.  55),  an  additional  road  bearer  or 
floor  beam  may  be  suspended  from  the  intersection, 
and  the  number  of  panels  increased  to  four.  Double 
sling  and  triple  sling  bridges  have  been  constructed, 
but  the  single  sling  is  practically  the  limit  of  develop- 
ment of  the  spar  bridge.  A  sling  bridge  requires 
much  heavier  standards  than  the  double-lock  type. 
Fig.  56  shows  a  double  lock  spar  bridge. 


158 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


FIG.    56.      DOUBLE    LOCK    BRIDGE    COMPLETED 


Round  Timber  Required  for  Spar  Bridges. 

Diameter. 


, 

Through- 

Kind of  bridge. 

Spars. 

Length. 

At  tip. 

out  or 
mean. 

Purpose. 

No. 

Ft. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

4 

22 

7 

Standards. 

2 

15 

6 

Transoms. 

4 

15 

4  to  6 

Ledgers  and 

Single  lock, , 

shore  trans. 

30-f  t.  span. 

4 

20 

3 

Diag.  braces. 

1 

15 

, 

10 

Fork  trans. 

10 

20 

6 

Balk. 

4 

20 

3  to  6 

Side  rails. 

r    4 

20 

7 

Standards. 

2 

15 

. 

6 

Main  trans. 

4 

15 

4  to  6 

Ledgers  and 

Double  lock,  ^ 
45-ft.  span 

shore  trans. 

2 
2 

25 
15 

8 
10 

Distance  pes. 
Road  trans. 

4 

20 

3 

Braces. 

15 

20 

6 

Balk. 

L     4 

20 

. 

4  to  6 

Side  rails. 

F7'om  Engineer  Field  Manual, 


MILITARY    BRIDGES  159 

Rope  Required  for  Spar  Bridges. 

Single  lock.  Double  lock. 

V-,        .  ,.  J    •        f  Tj  Total      Max.  t,  „  „      Total      Max. 

Description  and  size  of  ropes.  Ropes,  i^^g^;^^      ^t^    Ropes,  ^^j^g^^^     ^t^ 

No.         Ft.        Lbs.      No.        Ft.        Lbs. 

Foot   ropes,   3   in.    circ,   40 

to  60  ft 4       240       71       4       240       71 

Guys,    3    in.    circ,    120    to 

150  ft 8     1,200    356       8     1,200     356 

2  in.  circ,  108  ft 2        216       29       2        216       29 

li/z     in.    circ,     54    ft,    for 

transom  lashings    4       216       29       8        512       68 

lYz     in.    circ,    36    ft,    for 

ledger  and  brace  lashings  10  360  27  14  504  37 
1  in.  circ,  21  ft.,  for  road 

bearers    10       210        7     10       210        7 

Spun  yarn    . .         7     . .  . .         7 

Aggregate  length  and 
weight  of  rope  re- 
quired      ..     2,442     526     ..     2,882     575 

From  Engineer  Field  Manual. 

For  bridging  a  shallow  ravine  or  watercourse,  some 
one  of  the  following  lashed  trestle  bridges  is  applicable : 

The  Two  Legged  Trestle  consists  of  a  lashed  frame 
as  used  for  a  single  lock  bridge,  the  standards  being 
set  at  a  greater  slope.  Each  trestle  is  assembled  on 
shore,  carried  out  to  the  head  of  the  completed  bridge 
and  let  down  by  inclined  skids  until  its  feet  are  in 
position.  The  top  is  then  pushed  out  by  means  of  the 
stringers,  previously  lashed  to  the  transom,  the  flooring 
is  completed  out  to  this  point,  the  skids  placed  in  posi- 
tion, and  another  trestle  brought  out  and  placed.  See 
bottom  of  Fig.  57. 

The  Three  Legged  Trestle  contains  bents  of  two 
tripods  each.  The  three  legs  of  a  tripod  are  lashed 
together  at  the  top  by  means  of  two  shear  lashings, 
three  ledgers  are  lashed  around  the  bottom  to  keep  the 
legs  spread,  and  a  transom  is  lashed  on  the  inside  face 
of  each  tripod.    The  road  bearer  rests  upon  the  two 


160  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


FIG.    57.      LASHED   TRESTLE   BRIDGES 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


161 


transoms.  This  type  is  built  in  place,  the  men  wading 
in  the  water.  It  i^  impracticable  in  deep  water,  as 
the  tripods  are  liable  to  float  before  the  load  is  placed 
upon  them.    See  top  of  Fig.  57. 

The  Four  Legged  Trestle  is  constructed  in  place,  or, 
if  of  light  spars,  it  may  be  carried  out  and  placed  in 
position.  See  Fig.  57,  center  cut. 


Spars  and  Lashings  for  Trestles. 


Kind  of  trestle. 


Two-legged . . 


Three-legged. 


Four-legged 


No.  of  spars  length, 
or  lashings.  ^ 


Ft. 


2 

1 
2 
1 
6 
3 
6 
1 
4 
6 
4 

12 
6 
4 
2 
4 
4 

12 
L  6 


10  to  14 


30 
15 


14 
4  to  6 

6 

2 
30 
15 

ioVoii 


30 
15 


Diam.  of 

spars  or  circ. 

of  rope. 

Ins. 

41^   to  6 

5%  to  7 

3(1/2  to  41/2 

3  to  6 

iy2 

3  to  5 

7  to  8 

3  to  314 

l%to2i^ 

2 

11/2 

iy2 

314  to43^ 

5  to  6 

3to3i^ 

21^  to  3 

iy2 
iy2 


Purpose. 


Legs. 

Transom. 

Diagonals. 

Ledger. 

Lashings. 

Lashings. 

LegSu 

Transom. 

Cross    bearers. 

Ledgers. 

Stakes. 

Lashings. 

Lashings. 

Legs. 

Transom. 

Diagonals. 

Ledgers. 

Lashings. 

Lashings. 


From  Engineer  Field  Manual. 


Floating  Bridges, 

Floating  bridges  are  among  the  most  important 
equipment  carried  by  an  army  in  the  field.  The  equip- 
age of  the  U.  S.  Army  is  of  two  kinds:  the  advance 
guard  or  light  train,  and  the  reserve  or  heavy  train. 

The  Light  Train  is  generally  carried  by  engineers 
with  the  advance  guard.  The  boats  are  collapsible,  of 
wooden  frames  covered  with  canvas,  and  displace  6 


162  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

tons.  Each  will  carry  20  infantrymen  fully  equipped, 
and  a  crew.  The  boats  are  21  ft.  x  5  ft.  4  in.  x  2  f t.  4  in., 
are  spaced  16  feet  center  to  center  in  the  bridge,  and 
the  entire  boat,  with  material  for  one  hay  or  panel  of 
the  floor,  is  carried  on  one  wagon.  A  division  of  the 
light  train  comprises  eight  boats  and  two  trestles,  spans 
186  feet,  and  is  carried  upon  14  wagons,  8  ponton,  2 
trestle,  2  chess,  1  tool,  and  1  battery  and  forge. 

The  Heavy  Train  consists  of  wooden  boats,  31  ft.  x 
5  ft.  8  in.  X  2  ft.  7  in.,  displacing  9 1/^  tons,  and  capable 
of  carrying  40  infantrymen  and  a  crew.  They  are 
spaced  20  feet  apart,  center  to  center,  in  the  bridge, 
and  one  wagon  carries  a  boat  with  the  stringers  for 
spanning  one  bay.  A  division  of  the  reserve  train  com- 
prises 8  boats  and  2  trestles,  spans  225  feet,  and  is 
carried  upon  16  wagons,  8  ponton,  2  trestle,  4  chess,  1 
tool  and  1  battery  and  forge.  Fig.  58  shows  a  loaded 
ponton  carriage  of  the  reserve  train. 


FIG.    58.      LOADED    PONTON    CARRIAGE,    RESERVE    TRAIN 

The  Floor  System  consists  of  long  stringers  or  halks 
which  span  between  and  across  both  boats,  the  chess, 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


163 


which  form  the  floor,  and  the  side  rails,  which  are 
extra  balks  laid  on  the  outer  ends  of  the  chess  to  keep 
them  down.  The  side  rails  are  lashed  to  the  balks  under 
the  chess,  the  latter  being  made  narrower  at  the  ends 
to  allow  passing  the  lashing  between  them.  The  floor  is 
designed  to  fail  before  the  boats  can  be  sunk  by  a  load 
on  the  bridge,  and  will  safely  carry  660  pounds  per 
linear  foot  in  the  reserve  equipage  and  600  pounds  in 
the  light.  Greater  strength  is  obtained  by  using  extra 
balk  under  the  wheel  tracks,  and  the  factor  of  safety 
of  the  boats  may  thus  be  reduced  from  4  to  2.  Any 
load  which  travels  with  the  army,  including  siege  ar- 
tillery, may  then  pass  over  the  bridge. 


Names  and  Dimensions  of  the   Principal  Parts  of  the 
Light  and  Heavy  Trains. 


Name  of  part. 

Ponton,   91^   ton. 


Canvas    ponton, 

tons    

Balks  and  side  rails 


Trestle  balks 
Chess   


Abutment  sills 

Trestle  caps,  2 

planks  each   

Trestle  legs    

Trestle  shoe 

Suspension   chains. 

Paddles 

Oars   

Boat  hooks 

Rack  sticks   


Anchor    

Anchor  cable 


Light  train. 


21  ft.  by  5  ft.  4  in. 
by  2  ft.  4  in. 

22  ft.    by   41/2    by 
41/2  in. 


11  ft.  by  12  by  11/2 
in. 


8  ft. 


8ft.,  blunted  points 
11/4  in.  diam.  2  ft. 

long    

75  lb 

3  in.  circ,  180  ft. 

long    ,,. 


Heavy  train. 

31  ft.  by  5  ft.  8  in. 
by  2  ft.  7  in. 


27  ft.  by  5  by  5  in. 

21  ft.  8  in.  by  5  by 
5  in. 

13  ft.  by  12  by  11/2 
in. 

14  ft.  by  8  by  6  in. 

20  ft.  by  12  by  2  in. 

15  ft.  by  7  by  3i^  in. 

1/^  in.  by  8  ft. 

18  ft 
10  ft. 
11^   in.  diam.,  2  ft. 

long. 
150  lb. 
3    in.    circ,    240    ft. 

long. 


164 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


Name  of  part. 


Lashings 


Canvas-ponton 

cover. 

Ponton  chest  . 


Light  train. 

1   in.   circ,   18   ft. 

long    

No.     0000     cotton 

duck    

8  ft.  long,  2  ft.  4 

in.   wide,   18  in. 

deep 


Heavy  train. 
1    in.    circ,    18    ft. 
long. 


From  Engineer  Field  Manual. 
Weights  of  Wagons  and  Their  Loads. 


Kind  of  wagon. 


Lbs. 

Ponton   1,750 

Chess    1,750 

Trestle   1,750 

Tool 1,700 

Battery  and  forge  2,081 


Light  train. 

Wagon.     Load.  Total. 

Lbs.  Lbs. 

1,985  3,735 

1,856  3,606 

2,060  3,810 

1,938  3,638 

600  2,681 


Heavy  train. 
Wagon.      Load. 


Lbs. 
2,200 
1,750 
2,200 
1,700 
2,081 


Lbs. 
2,900 
2,280 
2,635 
2,100 

600 


Total. 
Lbs. 

5,100 
4,030 
4,835 
3,800 

2,681 


From  Engineer  Field  Manual. 


To  save  one  boat  at  either  end,  and  in  places  where 
a  boat  would  ground,  the  Birago  Trestle  (Fig.  59)  is 


Sling 


Cap 


Shoe 


FIG.    59.      BIRAGO  TRESTLE 


MILITARY    BRIDGES  165 

used.  On  dry  ground  or  in  very  shallow  water  it  may 
be  assembled  prone  and  raised  into  position  by  guy 
ropes.  Over  water  it  is  assembled  on  a  ponton  raft  and 
raised  to  the  vertical,  the  cap  resting  upon  two  balks 
which  project  over  the  edge  of  the  raft.  The  trestle 
balks  are  passed  out  from  the  shore  and  their  double 
cleats  hooked  over  the  cap  and  the  abutment  sill  on  the 
bank.  The  shoes  of  the  trestle  are  then  forced  down 
upon  the  bottom,  the  false  legs  or  wedges  driven,  the 
chain  slings  adjusted,  and  the  raft  withdrawn.  Chess 
are  laid  out  to  the  trestle  cap  and  the  construction  of 
the  bridge  proceeds  as  when  building  out  from  the 
shore.  At  the  far  end  the  trestle  is  placed  in  a  similar 
manner,  any  surplus  length  of  bridge  being  taken  up 
by  allowing  a  short  bay  between  the  last  boat  and  the 
trestle  or  by  setting  the  abutment  sill  back  from  the 
bank.  The  new  Bees  Trestle  does  away  with  the 
chain  slings. 

When  there  are  not  sufficient  boats  available  to  con- 
struct a  bridge,  some  form  of  extemporized  floating 
support  must  be  constructed.  Figs.  60  and  61  show, 
respectively,  a  barrel  raft  and  a  log  raft.  Before  using 
such  a  raft,  its  buoyancy  must  be  tested  or  computed, 
in  order  that  it  may  not  sink  when  the  bridge  is  loaded. 

In  constructing  the  bridge,  the  boats  are  assembled, 
half  upstream  and  half  downstream  of  the  abutment. 
The  chess  are  piled  on  the  right,  the  balks  on  'the  left, 
and  the  company  is  formed  and  divided  into  working 
parties  as  shown  in  Fig.  62.  The  first  boat  is  brought 
from  downstream  to  the  bank  (or  alongside  the  trestle 
if  used).  The  talk  carriers  bring  out  five  balks,  hook 
their  cleats  over  the  outer  gunwale  of  the  boat,  where 
they  are  held  in  position  by  the  halh  lashers  in  the 
boat,  and  push  it  out  until  the  cleats  at  the  shore  end 
of  the  balks  engage  the  abutment  sill  (trestle  cap  or 
boat  previously  placed).  The  boat  is  then  secured  by 
cables  to  the  bank.    The  chess  carriers  bring  out  the 


166 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


FIG.    60.      BARREL    RAFT 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


167 


FIG.    61.      LOG    RAFT 


168 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


MILITARY    BRIDGES  169 

ehess,  which  are  laid  across  the  balks  out  nearly  to  the 
first  boat. 

Boat  No.  2,  from  upstream,  drops  its  anchor  opposite 
the  position  which  will  be  occupied  by  hoat  No.  3  in  the 
bridge,  drops  down  alongside  No.  1  and  is  pushed  out 
as  before.  Both  sets  of  balk  are  now  lashed  to  the  gun- 
wales of  No.  1  and  chess  laid  out  nearly  to  No.  2.  The 
side  rail  detail  place  the  side  rails  on  the  chess  of  the 
first  bay,  pass  a  lashing  between  the  chess,  around 
balk  and  side  rail  several  times,  insert  a  rack-stick  in 
the  loops  and  twist  the  lashing  tight. 

Boat  No.  3,  from  downstream,  drops  anchor  below 
its  position  on  the  bridge,  comes  alongside  No.  2,  takes 
the  cable  of  the  upstream  anchor  dropped  by  No.  2,  is 
pushed  out  to  position,  and  draws  hoth  anchor  cables 
taut. 

The  construction  of  the  bridge  thus  proceeds  by  the 
method  of  successive  hays,  and  in  the  completed  bridge 
altei:nate  boats  are  anchored  both  up  and  down  stream, 
the  intermediate  boats  having  no  anchors.  The  balk, 
which  are  double  over  the  boat  and  firmly  lashed  to- 
gether and  to  each  gunwale,  preserve  the  requisite  stiff- 
ness of  the  bridge. 

To  save  time  the  method  of  construction  hy  parts  is 
sometimies  adopted.  (Fig.  63.)  Different  working 
parties  construct  a  number  of  sections  or  parts,  con- 
sisting ordinarily  of  three  boats.  These  are  floored 
over,  excepting  the  outer  boats  of  each  section.  Side 
rails  are  placed  aboard  but  not  lashed,  and  sufficient 
balk  and  chess  are  loaded  to  complete  the  flooring  over 
the  outer  boats  and  over  one  interval  between  boats. 
One  by  one,  these  sections  are  brought  to  the  bridge 
head,  having  first  dropped  their  anchors  or  had  them 
carried  out  by  independent  boats.  The  section  is 
pushed  out  to  the  proper  interval  as  in  the  case  of  a 
single  boat,  and  the  flooring  completed  with  the  extrf^. 
chess.     This  method  gains  considerable  time,  and  re- 


170 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


< 
A, 

PQ 

O 
g 

E 
t— I 

t 


CO 
CD 


C3 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


171 


m 
O 

I 

O 


CD 


t— I 


172  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

suits  in  a  completed  bridge  identical  with  that  con- 
structed by  successive  bays. 

The  method  by  rafts  is  occasionally  used,  where 
boats  are  plentiful  and  extreme  haste  is  necessary. 
(Fig.  64.)  A  raft  is  similar  to  the  part  described  above, 
except  that  the  chess  are  laid  complete,  from  end  to 
end,  and  the  side  rails  placed  and  lashed.  The  bridge 
is  constructed  by  lashing  a  number  of  rafts  together, 
the  end  boats  of  each  resting  side  by  side.  The  result- 
ing bridge  is  not  satisfactory,  as  the  piers  are  com- 
posed alternately  of  one  and  two  boats.  A  load  on  the 
bridge,  therefore,  causes  unequal  settlement,  and  a 
heavy  moving  load  subjects  the  material  to  a  severe 
strain.  The  method  is  very  little  used  except  at  some 
point  in  a  bridge  where  it  may  be  necessary  to  provide 
a  draw.     (Fig.  65.) 

The  method  hy  conversion^  which  comprises  con- 
struction parallel  to  the  bank  and  swinging  into  posi- 
tion by  the  current,  is  seldom  successful.  It  is  a  matter 
of  record  that  Napoleon's  engineers  once  used  this 
method  with  great  success,  his  troops  crowding  the 
bridge  and  springing  ashore  the  moment  it  landed. 
(Battle  of  Wagram,  1809.)  Hence  the  method  still 
finds  a  place  in  the  manuals  and  text  books. 

Fig.  66  shows  the  construction  of  a  ponton  bridge 
with  the  light  equipage,  and  Fig.  67  the  construction 
with  the  reserve  equipage. 

In  crossing  the  bridge  troops  must  break  step,  mount- 
ed men  must  dismount  and  lead  their  horses,  and  every 
care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  swaying  or  oscillating 
of  the  bridge.  However  taut  the  anchor  cables  may  be 
drawn,  the  sinking  of  the  boats  under  load  will  loosen 
them,  and  some  oscillation  will  probably  result.  Those 
on  the  bridge  must  then  be  halted  until  it  ceases,  care 
being  taken  not  to  crowd  together.  In  halting,  heavy 
loads  such  as  the  wheels  of  gun  carriages,  should  rest 
between  boats. 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


173 


FIG.   65.      DRAW  IN  PONTON  BRIDGE 


The  floor  system  of  a  ponton  bridge,  with  the  balk 
overlapping  the  entire  width  of  each  boat,  is  too  stiff 
to  accommodate  itself  to  the  rise  and  fall  of  tidal 
waters  without  severe  strain,  so  there  must  be  some 
sort  of  hinge  between  the  shore  end,  the  elevation  of 


174 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


which  is  fixed,  and  the  floating  portion.  This  may  be 
accomplished  by  placing  a  saddle  sill  over  the  axis  of 
the  first  boat,  so  that  the  balk  join  at  this  sill  and  do 


FIG.    66.      CONSTRUCTION    OP    BRIDGE^    LIGHT    TRAIN 


FIG..   67.      CONSTRUCTION  OF  BRIDGE,  RESERVE  TRAIN 

not  have  two  points  of  support  at  the  gunwales.  Lack- 
ing such  a  sill,  the  shore  balk  may  be  ended  at  the  near 
gunwale  of  the  first  boat,  letting  the  balk  of  the  second 


MILITARY    BRIDGES  175 

bay  extend  entirely  across  the  boat.  The  cap  of  the 
Birago  Trestle  cannot  serve  as  a  hinge,  as  it  lies  at  a 
fixed  elevation  the  same  as  the  abutment  sill. 

To  load  pontons  of  the  reserve  train  on  their  car- 
riages, four  methods  are  practiced. 

1st.  The  rear  wheels  of  the  carriage  are  dismounted, 
and  the  boat  pushed  up  the  incline  formed  by  the  seven 
balk  already  in  place  on  the  wagon  trucks.  The  wagon 
is  then  jacked  up,  and  the  wheels  replaced. 

2nd.  The  rear  wheels  are  backed  into  a  depression, 
usually  dug  out  for  the  purpose,  and  the  same  pro- 
ceedure  followed. 

3rd.  Balks  may  be  placed  from  the  ground  at  the 
side  of  the  wagon  and  the  boat  pushed  up  the  incline 
thus  formed,  over  the  wheels  and  into  place.  This  is 
the  least  to  be  recommended  of  any  of  the  methods  here 
described. 

4th.  The  best  method  is  to  provide  a  barrel-shaped 
roller  of  sufficient  strength  (a  strong  barrel  may  be 
used  if  guided  properly),  place  it  in  front  of  the  boat, 
back  the  wagon  up  to  within  10  or  12  feet,  and  push 
or  pull  the  boat  up  over  the  roller  and  on  the  wagon. 
Such  a  roller  may  be  made  and  carried  along  with  the 
train,  in  one  of  the  boats. 

Where  the  ponton  train  is  to  be  moved  by  rail,  flat 
cars  are  used,  and  the  number  required  is  computed 
as  follows:  a  40-foot  flat  car  will  accommodate  one 
ponton  or  trestle  wagon  and  one  chess,  tool  or  forge 
wagon.  A  34-foot  car  will  carry  one  ponton  or  trestle 
wagon  or  two  of  the  shorter  wagons.  A  division  of  the 
reserve  train,  therefore,  will  require  ten  cars,  of  which 
six  must  be  40  feet  in  length,  the  others  shorter.  The 
distribution  is  as  follows: 

Four  cars,  40-ft.,  one  ponton  wagon,  one  chess 

wagon  on  each. 
One  car,  40-ft.,  one  ponton  wagon,  one  tool  wagon. 


176  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

One  car,  40-ft.,   one  ponton  wagon,  one  forge 

wagon. 
Two  cars,  34-ft.,  one  ponton  wagon  each. 
Two  cars,  34-ft.,  one  trestle  wagon  each. 

If  only  34-ft.  cars  are  available,  13  are  required,  as 
below : 

Ten  cars,  one  ponton  or  trestle  wagon  each. 
Two  cars,  two  chess  wagons  each. 
One  car,  one  tool  and  one  forge  wagon. 

To  load  the  wagons,  two  strong  skids  are  provided, 
each  about  16  feet  long,  a  foot  wide,  built  with  a  side 
rail,  and  having  hooks  at  the  upper  end  to  engage  the 
iron  sleeves  on  the  car.  These  skids  are  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  train,  their  centers  blocked  up,  and  the 
intervals  between  cars  bridged.  Or,  an  incline  may  be 
constructed  of  the  ponton  flooring.  The  wagons  may 
be  hauled  up  by  about  twenty-five  men,  walking  along 
the  cars,  or  a  snatch-block  may  be  rigged  at  the  end 
of  the  first  car  and  the  pull  made  along  the  ground,  by 
men  or  teams.  The  rope  is  attached  to  the  running 
gear  of  the  wagons,  secured  by  a  half -hitch  near  the 
end  of  the  tongue  for  guidance,  and  a  couple  of  men 
walk  up  the  skids  guiding  the  tongue.  The  wagons 
must  be  brought  up  in  their  proper  order,  a  small 
wagon  ahead  of  each  ponton  or  trestle  wagon  on  a  40-ft. 
car.  After  hauling  up,  the  wagons  are  taken  over  by 
details  of  men  and  run  along  the  train  to  their  posi- 
tions. Each  wheel  is  blocked  front  and  back,  and  addi- 
tional blocks  are  placed  outside  each  wheel,  and  con- 
nected by  2x4  's  passing  between  the  spokes.  The  latter 
may  be  replaced  by  pieces  of  old  brake  hose,  passing 
through  the  wheels  and  nailed  to  the  car  floor  outside 
and  inside  each  wheel.  Tongues  are  removed  and  made 
fast  under  the  wagons  to  which  they  belong. 

In  detraining,  the  wagons  are  best  let  down  the  skids 
by  snubbing  the  rope  on  a  post  formed  by  driving  a 


MILITARY    BRIDGES  177 

piece  of  4x4  timber  into  one  of  the  iron  sleeves  at  the 
front  end  of  the  car. 

The  entraining  or  detraining  of  a  division  of  the 
ponton  train  should  be  accomplished  in  about  l^/^ 
hours,  with  ordinary  troops,  under  competent  super- 
vision. If  a  long  loading  platform  the  height  of  the 
cars  is  available,  the  wagons  may  be  loaded  from  the 
side,  a  number  at  once,  and  in  much  less  time. 

It  is  a  popular  opinion  that  the  ponton  bridge  is 
like  a  picture  puzzle,  each  part  cut  and  fitted,  and 
easily  assembled.  On  the  contrary,  each  bridge  built 
is  a  separate  problem,  which  calls  for  much  hard  labor 
and  considerable  ingenuity.  Highly  trained  troops 
are  required  to  operate  the  train  and  skilled  mechanics 
to  maintain  it  in  condition  for  immediate  use. 


XIII. 

TOPOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHING. 

HOW  DIFFERING  FROM  SURVEYING  METHODS. 

Military  sketching  differs  from  the  ordinary  opera- 
tions of  surveying  chiefly  in  the  time  required  and  the 
accuracy  of  the  completed  work.  An  error  of  10  or 
15  per  cent,  in  the  length  of  a  road  will  not  make  so 
much  difference  to  the  commander  if  he  can  tell  from 
the  sketch  aiout  the  time  it  will  take  to  march  the 
distance,  whether  the  grades  are  practicable  for  his 
trains,  and  something  of  the  topography  on  either 
side.  Nor  is  the  exact  height  of  a  hill  of  so  much  im- 
portance as  its  shape,  whether  there  is  dead  space 
on  its  slopes,  where  it  is  too  steep  to  assault,  etc. 

To  the  average  engineer,  the  contours  on  a  map  are 
simply  the  statement  of  a  mathematical  problem; 
given:  these  contours,  required:  to  compute  excava- 
tion, locate  gradients  or  balance  cut  and  fill.  To  the 
military  engineer,  they  mean  ground  forms,  and  his 
problems  deal  with  dead  space,  visibility  and  com- 
mand. It  is  often  of  vital  importance  to  know  whether 
a  certain  stretch  of  road  is  visible  from  an  observation 
station,  over  the  top  of  an  intervening  hill.  Upon  the 
correct  solution  of  this  problem  depends  the  sending 
of  troops  by  that  route  when  their  movements  must  be 
concealed  from  the  enemy.  The  engineer,  in  making 
his  map,  works  for  accuracy,  determining  the  location 
and  elevation  of  ruling  points  and  drawing  the  con- 
tours among  them.  The  military  sketcher  works  to 
picturize  information,  traversing  the  drainage  lines  as 
a  skeleton  and  building  around  them  by  contours  the 
ground  forms  which  he  sees. 

178 


TOPOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHING  179 

Major  Sherrill,  in  his  * '  Military  Topography, ' '  says : 
No  man  can  become  an  excellent  sketcher  until  he 
invohintarily  sees  the  map  forms  which  would  corre- 
spond to  the  ground  observed;  nor  can  he  he  a  perfect 
map  reader  or  scout  until  to  see  a  map  is  at  once  to 
picture  to  himself  intuitively  the  ground  forms  from 
ivhich  the  7nap  was  made. 

Sketches  must  be  made  rapidly.  The  information 
must  be  turned  in  at  the  end  of  each  day's  march,  and 
the  sketcher  must  keep  pace  with  an  infantry  column 
covering  2%  to  3  miles  per  hour.  To  sketch  at  this 
rate  and  deliver  a  contoured  map  with  all  required 
information  necessitates  careful  training  and  consid- 
erable practice. 

It  is  certain  that  nothing  in  the  way  of  a  topograph- 
ical survey  can  be  undertaken  in  the  field  during  hos- 
tilities, even  by  reconnaissance  methods.  The  informa- 
tion would  not  be  available  as  soon  as  wanted,  and  the 
sketchers  could  not  advance  in  front  of  their  own 
forces  to  map  the  ground  on  account  of  interference 
by  the  enemy.  For  the  proper  conduct  of  operations 
on  a  large  scale,  therefore,  dependence  must  be  placed 
upon  maps  prepared  before  war  is  declared,  and  the 
great  usefulness  of  the  sketcher  lies  in  the  correction 
and  amplification  of  existing  maps,  and  in  making 
road  maps  and  position  sketches  covering  small  areas. 
The  very  fact  that  topographers  must  stay  with  their 
own  troops,  has  the  effect  of  limiting  their  usefulness 
to  a  great  extent.  They  cannot  map  a  position  until 
it  is  occupied,  therefore  the  information  contained  in 
their  sketches  can  be  of  no  use  in  effecting  the  occu- 
pation, and  similarly  as  regards  mapping  a  road  in 
time  to  route  the  line  of  march.  However,  sketchers 
with  reconnaissance  patrols  may  be  able  to  gain  quite 
a  distance  to  the  front  and  turn  in  sketches  which, 
while  fragmentary,  may,  in  conjunction  with  existing 
maps  and  fragments  turned  in  by  others,  furnish  very 


180  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

useful  information  to  the  commander.  No  feature  of 
the  terrain  that  might  be  of  military  value,  therefore, 
should  be  overlooked  by  the  sketcher,  whether  that 
value  be  apparent  to  him  or  not.  An  engineer  would 
not  think  of  designing  a  foundation  without  the  fullest 
information  regarding  the  site,  but  the  military  com- 
mander can  never  be  fully  informed.  He  must  con- 
sider all  the  information  that  he  has,  sift  the  true  from 
the  false  as  well  as  he  is  able,  and  base  his  action  upon 
the  partial  knowledge  that  remains. 

INSTRUMENTS   USED. 

The  small  plane  table,  about  14  inches  square,  with 
a  compass  needle  set  in  one  edge  and  mounted  upon 
a  light  camera  tripod,  is  the  most  useful  instrument 
for  mapping.  The  map  is  made  complete  as  the  survey 
progresses  and  nothing  is  left  to  fill  in  or  to  be  com- 
pleted later,  as  the  sketch  must  be  turned  in  at  the 
end  of  each  day,  as  soon  as  camp  is  reached,  to  begin 
the  work  of  matching  and  reproduction. 

The  sketching  case,  Fig.  68,  is  a  small  plane  table, 
intended  to  be  used  without  a  tripod.  In  use,  it  is 
strapped  to  the  wrist  or  carried  in  the  hand,  and  is 
for  that  reason  particularly  adapted  to  mounted 
sketching.  A  compass  is  mounted  in  the  top  edge  of 
the  board,  and  two  rollers  are  provided  to  keep  the 
strip  of  paper  stretched.  A  map  much  longer  than 
the  board  may  be  drawn  by  rolling  up  the  completed 
sketch  on  one  roller  and  feeding  fresh  paper  from  the 
other.  The  alidade  is  in  the  form  of  a  jointed  brass 
ruler,  pivoted  to  the  top  edge.  The  board  may  be  used 
to  read  vertical  angles  by  loosening  the  pivot  screw 
of  the  alidade,  holding  the  board  in  a  vertical  plane 
and  sighting  across  the  screws  at  the  top,  allowing  the 
alidade  to  swing  freely.  The  angle  is  read  on  the  scale 
at  the  base  of  the  board.  The  cover  of  the  compass 
can  be  revolved  by  a  stud  set  at  one  side,  and  two 


TOPOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHING 


FIG.    68.      RECONNAISSANCE   INSTRUMENTS 


182  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

parallel  wires  are  mounted  on  the  cover  glass,  revolv- 
ing with  it.  In  commencing  a  sketch,  the  board  is 
pointed  in  the  desired  direction,  the  needle  allowed  to 
come  to  rest,  and  the  wires  revolved  to  a  position  paral- 
lel to  the  needle.  They  must  not  be  again  moved 
during  the  making  of  the  sketch.  In  taking  each  sight, 
the  board  must  be  oriented  by  turning  it  until  the 
needle  comes  to  rest  between  and  parallel  to  the  two 
wires,  or  swings  equally  on  each  side  of  their  axis. 
In  sighting,  the  board  is  not  raised  to  the  height  of 
the  eye  and  the  alidade  aimed  at  the  point,  but  is  held 
in  front  of  the  body  and  the  ruler  pointed  by  looking 
alternately  at  the  point  and  the  ruler,  as  in  plumbing 
down  from  a  high  point  by  eye.  In  Fig.  68  the  detail 
at  the  right  is  of  the  clamp  screw  on  the  alidade. 
Loosening  the  small  top  screw  C^  permits  revolving 
the  lower  link  about  the  pivot,  while  the  large  screw 
C  controls  the  motion  of  the  pivot  along  the  slotted 
upper  link.  The  lower  detail  shows  the  end  of  the 
pencil  slot  under  the  board. 

Below  the  sketching  case,  Fig.  68,  is  shown  the 
Ahney  Clinometer,  used  to  read  vertical  angles.  The 
line  of  sight  through  the  tube  is  divided,  half  of  the 
object  end  being  open,  with  a  horizontal  wire  across 
its  center,  the  other  half  is  closed  by  a  diagonal  mirror, 
permitting  a  view  of  the  bubble  which  is  mounted  above 
the  tube.  The  bubble  and  the  target  can  thus  be  seen 
at  the  same  time,  and  if  the  bubble  is  brought  to  the 
center,  the  graduated  arc  will  give  the  angle  of  eleva- 
tion or  depression.  The  clinometer  may  be  used  as  a 
hand  level  by  clamping  the  circle  at  zero  and  keeping 
the  bubble  in  the  center  of  its  tube  while  sighting. 

The  service  clinometer  (lower  right-hand  corner  of 
Fig.  68),  is  used  for  the  samue  purpose,  but  depends 
upon  a  weighted  pendulum  in  place  of  a  bubble.  The 
line  of  sight  is  through  the  eye  hole,  L  and  the  orifice 
N.     A  small  mirror  is  mounted  at  the  center  of  the 


TOPOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHING  183 

instrument  and  reflects  to  the  eye  a  circular  scale 
mounted  on  the  pendulum  and  illuminated  by  the  glass 
window  shown.  The  scale  is  graduated  in  degrees  and 
is  seen  at  the  same  time  as  the  target,  so  that  the  ver- 
tical angle  is  read  direct.  When  the  scale  reads  zero 
the  line  of  sight  is  level  and  the  instrument  may  be 
used  as  a  hand  level.  The  pendulum  is  released  to 
revolve  by  pressing  the  button  F  which,  in  turn,  may 
be  locked  by  pushing  forward  the  slide  H.  This  in- 
strument is  quicker  of  operation,  but  not  so  accurate 
as  the  Abney  type.  It  is  sufficiently  accurate,  however, 
to  meet  all  requirements  of  military  sketching. 

The  prismatic  compass  (lower  left-hand  corner  of 
Fig.  68)  is  used  to  read  bearing  or  azimuths,  the  card 
being  usually  graduated  to  read  clockwise  360  degrees 
from  the  north.  The  cover  lifts  to  a  vertical  position 
and  forms  the  front  sight.  The  prism  turns  up  over 
the  edge  and  forms  the  rear  sight,  allowing  at  the  same 
time  a  view  of  the  edge  of  the  compass  card,  rotating 
beneath  it.  A  push  button  under  the  front  hinge  stops 
the  card  at  will,  so  by  checking  it  in  the  middle  of  its 
swing  it  may  be  more  quickly  brought  to  rest. 

The  aneroid  barometer  is  used  to  find  differences 
of  elevation.'  It  gives  best  results  when  the  start  and 
end  of  the  survey  are  at  points  of  known  elevation-, 
allowing  interpolation  for  intermediate  points,  or 
when  used  in  conjunction  with  a  standard  barometer 
read  regularly  at  one  station  to  register  atmospheric 
changes. 

METHODS. 

The  plane  Tahle  is  set  up  at  the  starting  point,  ori- 
ented by  compass,  and  the  position  of  the  first  station 
is  assumed  on  the  board,  having  due  regard  for  the 
direction  in  which  the  sketch  will  proceed  and  the  area 
to  be  covered.  With  the  edge  of  the  alidade  passing 
through  this  initial  point,  a  pointing  is  made  towards 
the  next  station  and  a  line  drawn  along  the  edge.  Sim- 


184  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

ilar  sights  are  taken  and  lines  drawn  in  the  direction 
of  various  features  which  it  is  desired  to  locate  upon 
the  map.  The  distance  to  these  points  may  be  measured 
by  pacing  or  may  be  estimated,  or  a  second  sight  taken 
towards  them  from  another  station,  the  intersection  of 
the  two  giving  the  location.  Angles  of  elevation  or 
depression  may  be  read  by  the  clinometer,  as  an  aid 
to  contouring.  When  ready  to  move,  the  board  is 
taken  up  and  the  sketcher  walks  towards  the  second 
station,  counting  his  paces  or  keeping  a  record  of  them 
with  a  pace  tally,  which  is  a  watch-shaped  counting 
device  held  in  the  hand  and  actuated  by  pressing  the 
stem  at  each  stride  or  step.  As  he  proceeds  he  keeps 
mental  or  written  notes  that  at  90  paces  a  house  was 
passed,  30  paces  to  the  right  of  the  road,  at  145  paces 
a  stream  was  crossed  on  a  wooden  truss,  40  ft.  long  x 
16  ft.  wide  X  12  ft.  high,  at  181  paces  a  railroad  was 
crossed  at  grade,  making  an  angle  of  60  degrees  with 
the  road,  etc.  Upon  arriving  at  the  next  station  the 
board  is  set  up,  and  oriented  by  compass  or  by  back- 
sight. Using  a  scale  of  his  own  paces,  he  first  plots  the 
distance  between  the  stations  along  the  line  already 
drawn,  thus  locating  Station  2.  The  notes  taken  along 
the  way  are  then  plotted,  then  a  sight  taken  to  the 
next  station,  and  to  various  side  points.  The  survey 
proceeds  by  repeating  these  operations. 

Mapping  is  done  with  a  soft  pencil  upon  vellum 
tracing  paper,  or,  in  wet  weather,  upon  sheets  of 
celluloid,  roughened  on  one  side  to  take  pencil  lines. 
Sketches  upon  this  material  are  not  damaged  by  rain. 

The  sketching  case  is  used  in  exactly  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  sketching  board,  except  that  it  cannot  be 
oriented  by  backsights  unless  placed  in  a  steady  posi- 
tion upon  a  fence  post,  the  ground,  a  stone,  etc.  Maps 
drawn  with  the  sketching  case  are  not  so  accurate  as 
those  made  with  the  sketching  board,  as  the  pointings 
or  orientations  cannot  be  made  so  closely. 


TOPOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHING  185 

The  Prismatic  Compass  is  useful  in  running  tra- 
verses for  control,  or  to  obtain  bearings  to  important 
objects.  If  used  for  filling  in,  it  either  takes  two 
men,  one  to  read  bearings  and  the  other  to  plot  and 
sketch,  or  one  man  must  do  both  and  take  twice  as 
long,  or  the  plotting  must  wait  until  the  reconnais- 
sance is  completed  and  must  be  done  out  of  sight  of 
the  ground  to  be  sketched,  which  means  that  more 
elaborate  notes  must  be  taken  to  aid  his  memory. 

The  Engineer  Note  Book,  3?igs.  69  and  70,  shows  a 
method  once  much  used.  The  two  plates  are  almost 
self-explanatory.  The  record  is  started  at  the  bottom 
on  the  left-hand  page,  the  record  of  distances  and  the 
alignment  is  kept  in  .the  center  column,  also  azimuths 
of  side  shots.  In  the  columns  on  either  side  of  the 
center  are  placed  the  offset  distances,  and  in  the  outer 
columns  the  descriptions.  Azimuths  are  read  by  the 
prismatic  compass.  On  the  right-hand  page,  Fig.  70, 
is  shown  the  plot  of  the  notes  in  Fig.  69. 

Contouring. 

For  assistance  in  contouring,  a  device  known  as  a 
scale  of  map  distances  is  used.  On  a  map  of  a  given 
scale  contours  of,  say  10  feet  interval,  are  spaced  a 
certain  distance  apart  on  a  1  degree  slope.  On  a  map 
of  half  the  scale  this  distance  is  reduced  one-half,  but 
on  a  map  of  half  the  scale  and  twice  the  contour  inter- 
val, the  contours  will  be  spaced  the  same  distance  apart 
for  a  1  degree  slope  as  in  the  first  map.  Similarly  for 
slopes  of  different  degrees. 

In  the  U.  S.  Army,  three  principal  scales  are  used 
for  sketching,  as  follows. 

Nature  of  sketch.  Scale.  ^Sn.'^^       Sv'aL 

Road  sketch 3  in.  =  1  mile         1  :  21 120         20  Ft. 

Position  sketch    6  in.  =r  1  mile         1  :  10  560         10  Ft. 

Fortification   sketch.     12  in.  =  1  mile        1  :    5  280  5  Ft. 


186 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


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PIG.    69.      ENGINEER   NOTE   BOOK 


TOPOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHING 


SCALE 

SCALE  i      t      I 


-1     I      I 


FIG.    70L      ENGINEER   NOTE   BOOK 


188  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

It  will  be  noted  in  this  table  that  as  the  scale  is  in- 
creased the  contour  interval  is  reduced  in  like  ratio, 
so  the  same  map  distances  will  apply  to  maps  of  all 
three  scales.     (Fig.  71.)    The  use  of  this  scale  is  simple 

I ^  ■  ■ \ ! lJl-i1 

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FIG.    71.      SCALE    OF    MAP    DISTANCES 

and  will  often  obviate  the  necessity  of  referring  to  a 
table  to  find  differences  of  elevation. 

A  hill  to  the  side  of  the  road  is  located  by  intersec- 
tion and  plotted.  The  slope  from  the  station  to  its 
summit  is  measured  by  a  clinometer  or  slope  board  and 
found  to  be  2  degrees.  It  is  then  determined  by  trial 
how  many  times  the  map  distance  for  2  degrees  will  fit 
into  the  plotted  distance  to  the  hill.  This  figure  gives 
the  number  of  contours  which  must  be  drawn  between 
the  two  points  on  the  map,  and,  multiplied  by  the  con- 
tour interval,  gives  the  difference  of  elevation.  If 
the  slope  between  the  points  is  uniform,  the  contours 
are  spaced  equally,  according  to  the  map  distance.  If 
flat  for  half  the  distance,  no  contours  are  drawn  in 
this  half  and  the  total  number  are  crowded  into  the 
other  half.  If  the  slope  is  concave  the  contours  will 
show  it  by  being  drawn  closer  together  near  the  summit 
and  vice-versa. 

Figs.  72  and  73  show  the  ordinary  topographical 
symbols  used  in  military  mapping.  When  pressed  for 
time,  the  sketcher  will  not  fill  in  a  space  with  symbols, 
but  will  draw  a  wavy  line  around  it  and  write 
*' Woods,"  ^^Cult./'  etc.  inside. 


TOPOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHING 


ISO 


OO  OOoO 

OO  OoO«0 
oqpo  Oco 

^*    Oe   ©€>© 


^Sand 


Woods.      Grass  or  meadow.   Cultivated, 


M»d  gravel.         Tidal  Flats. 


Mud  and         Salt  marsh.       Fresh  marsh         Cypress 


pond. 


swamp. 


.Enclosures, 

Wire  Fence 

-X — ;>»— — x- — : 
Barbed 


Communications. 


T  TT  T 

Telegraph. 


FIG.   72.      TOPOGRAPHICAL   SYMBOLS 


190  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

Military  Signs. 


1  nf  antry 

In  column     o-D-D-OD-D- 


Inline  I  iriZZZI 

Cavalry 


In  line 
Artillery  ,|,   .j,  .j,    ,1,  J.    J. 


Sentrv        ^     Vedette 

Headquarters 

Battle 

Palisades 


^ 


A 


AAA  A-AA 
^^""P         AAAAAA 


Trenches; 


"""      ^T=T=^ 


battery 

Mortar 
battery 


"""^     ^o  o'^ 


Abatti,        HfHj'^l'Hf 


Chevaux  de 
frisQ 


Miscellaneous. 


"^ 'J^V,.        Dry  rur 

XMi 


ne  or 
Quarry 


o 


>^ 


Well 
Springs 


Jj^  Church 

Cemete7 


o+o+o 


I  Blacksnr^ith  Shop 
Wagon  ShoD 

Saw  Mill; 


Wind  MiU 

o.M.         Grist  Mill 

FIG.    73.      TOPOGRAPHICAL    SYMBOLS 


TOPOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHING  191 

1^  "■'s.V//  C-«^ 


FIG.    74.      ROAD    SKETCH 


192  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

Fig.  74  shows  a  road  sketch  reproduced  from  Sher- 
riirs  ''Military  Topography"  which  will  give  a  fair 
idea  of  the  character  of  work  done. 

VISIBILITY. 

One  of  the  problems  which  confront  the  military 
man  in  reading  maps  is  the  determination  of 
the  visibility  of  one  point  from  another.  This  is  of 
importance  in  laying  out  a  field  of  fire  to  avoid  dead 
space,  and  in  movements  of  troops  which  must  be  con- 
cealed from  the  enemy.  The  problem  can  sometimes 
be  solved  by  inspection,  as  when  the  difference  of  eleva- 
tion of  the  points  in  question  is  large  and  the  inter- 
vening point  is  not  much  higher  than  the  lower  of  the 
two,  or  when  the  height  of  the  intermediate  point  lies 
about  halfway  between  the  two  end  points  and  it  is 
situated  nearer  the  high  end.  On  a  concave  slope 
points  will  be  visible  from  all  other  points,  and  vice 
versa. 

By  scaling  the  distances  between  points  and  taking 
their  differences  of  elevation  as  shown  by  the  contours, 
the  slopes  may  be  computed  and  compared  to  deter- 
mine visibility,  or,  as  a  final  resort,  a  complete  profile 
may  be  constructed  from  the  map  and  a  straight-edge 
applied  to  see  whether  the  line  of  sight  will  clear  the 
obstacle.  The  labor  of  applying  this  method  to  a  map 
to  outline  a  complete  zone  of  dead  ground  from  a  cer- 
tain position  would  be  considerable,  however,  and  it 
is  usually  only  the  doubtful  points  which  are  thus 
treated.  In  all  visibility  problems  the  presence  of  trees 
and  other  vegetation  must  be  considered  and  allowed 
for.  If  the  location  of  a  trench  is  in  question  the 
visibility  must  be  determined  upon  the  actual  ground. 

MAP    REPRODUCTION. 

When  the  sketches  are  turned  in  at  night,  they  are 
matched,  closures  forced  by  cutting  and  pasting,  and 


TOPOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHING  193 

the  whole  combined  sketch  is  reproduced  for  sending 
out  with  the  orders  for  the  following  day.  In  opera- 
tions involving  large  bodies  of  troops,  maps  are  needed 
in  considerable  numbers,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to 
employ  a  method  of  reproduction  which  is  rapid  and 
capable  of  producing  work  in  quantity. 

Blue-printing  is  about  the  simplest  process,  but  is 
very  slow,  especially  when  done  at  night  under  such 
artificial  light  as  is  available  in  the  field,  so  a  litho- 
graphic method  has  been  developed  for  field  use,  differ- 
ing from  true  lithography  in  that  a  zinc  plate  is  used 
instead  of  a  stone.  The  process  is  called  zincography 
and  the  machine  with  which  the  work  is  done  is  called 
the  zincograph. 

The  equipment  consists  of  a  working  table,  a  press 
resembling  a  large  clothes  wringer,  an  ink  roller,  the 
various  chemicals  and  solutions  used,  and  the  container, 
which  is  a  large  three-storied  chest,  in  the  upper  com- 
partment of  which  is  stored  the  press,  and  in  the  lower 
two  the  solutions  and  supplies.  There  are  two  processes 
by  which  drawings  may  be  reproduced,  one  of  which  is 
dependent  upon  sunlight  or  some  strong  artificial  light, 
the  other  of  which  requires  no  such  light  but  necessi- 
tates copying  the  entire  drawing  to  be  reproduced. 

In  the  latter,  or  transfer  process,  the  zinc  plate  is 
of  a  No.  19  B.  &  S.  gage,  and  has  been  so  treated  as  to 
give  the  surface  a  slight  grain.  This  may  be  accom- 
plished by  immersing  the  polished  plate  in  a  solution 
consisting  of  one  gallon  of  water,  two  oz.  nitric  acid 
(commercial)  and  one  oz.  of  alum.  The  result  is  a 
dull  satin  gloss  finish.  The  drawing  to  be  reproduced 
is  traced  on  a  thin  coated  india  paper  known  as  auto- 
graphic transfer  paper,  with  transfer  ink,  such  as  is 
used  in  the  hectograph  process.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  touch  the  surface  of  the  paper  with  the  bare 
hand,  as  the  natural  grease  of  the  skin  will  cause  all 
finger  prints  to  be  reproduced  in  the  finished  print. 


194  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

The  tracing  is  then  placed  between  two  moistened 
sheets  of  blotting  paper  until  it  has  become  thoroughly 
dampened.    It  is  now  ready  to  transfer  to  the  plate. 

The  dampened  drawing  is  placed  face  down  on  the 
grained  surface  of  the  zinc  plate,  which  is  then  run 
through  the  press  several  times,  moistening  the  draw- 
ing at  intervals  with  a  wet  sponge.  The  paper  can 
now  be  peeled  off,  leaving  the  ink  lines  on  the  plate. 
The  plate  is  dried  by  fanning  and  then  covered  with 
a  thin  coating  of  gum  solution,  which  is  made  by  boil- 
ing one  pound  of  dextrine  in  a  pint  of  water.  The  plate 
is  then  given  a  coat  of  ink,  applied  with  a  piece  of 
cheese-cloth,  and  sponged  with  water.  The  latter  oper- 
ation removes  the  ink  from  that  portion  of  the  plate 
not  occupied  by  the  lines  of  the  drawing.  If  these  lines 
do  not  now  show  up  well,  the  operation  is  repeated  until 
all  lines  are  well  defined.  Any  line  that  has  not  trans- 
ferred to  the  plate  may  be  drawn  upon  it  with  a  pen 
or  a  fine  brush.  While  the  plate  is  still  damp  from 
the  last  sponging,  it  is  worked  over  with  the  ink  roller, 
the  ink  from  which  adheres  to  the  lines,  but  may  be 
easily  wiped  off  from  the  damp  portions  of  the  plate. 
After  removing  the  surplus  ink,  the  plate  is  dusted 
with  powdered  resin  and  again  sponged  with  water. 

In  order  to  print  from  the  smooth  plate,  it  must  be 
treated  so  the  ink  from  the  roller  will  adhere  to  the 
lines  and  not  to  the  remainder  of  the  plate.  Ink  will 
take  on  a  greasy  surface  but  not  upon  one  which  is 
damp,  and  in  order  to  insure  a  moist  surface  on  the 
plate,  it  is  etched  with  nitric  acid  and  the  etched  por- 
tion filled  with  gum,  to  which  the  ink  will  not  adhere. 
The  etching  solution  consists  of  4  oz.  of  nitric  acid  in 
two  gallons  of  water.  The  powdered  resin  is  only  a 
partial  protection  for  the  ink  lines,  therefore  the  plate 
must  not  be  left  in  the  etching  solution  more  than 
about  one  minute.  Upon  removal  from  the  acid,  the 
plate  is  sponged  with  water,  dried,  and  the  gum  solu- 


TOPOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHING  195 

tion  poured  over  it,  the  surplus  being  allowed  to  run 
off. 

Printing  is  now  done  by  moistening  the  plate  with 
damp  cheese  cloth,  inking  it  with  the  roller,  covering  it 
with  the  paper  and  running  it  through  the  press.  The 
first  print  can  be  obtained  in  from  15  to  30  minutes 
after  the  tracing  is  made,  depending  upon  the  amount 
of  building-up  required  by  the  ink  lines.  For  rapid 
printing  two  men  are  required.  No.  1  dampens  the 
plate.  No.  2  inks  it  with  a  hard  roller  from  an  ink  slab, 
No.  1  inserts  it  in  the  press  and  No.  2  turns  the  crank 
of  the  press.  Copies  can  be  printed  at  the  rate  of  six 
per  minute. 

The  second  process  depends  upon  contact  printing, 
and  requires  a  strong  light,  preferably  the  sun.  As 
most  of  this  work  in  the  field  must  be  done  at  night, 
however,  this  process  will  not  be  much  used.  The  plate 
is  sensitized  with  a  solution  consisting  of  120  grains  of 
dry  albumen  or  the  white  of  one  egg,  15  grains  of  am- 
monium dichromate  and  7  oz.  of  water.  The  plate  must 
be  thoroughly  cleaned  before  applying  the  sensitizing 
solution,  and  after  the  latter  has  dried  the  plate  must 
not  be  exposed  to  the  light.  A  maduro  negative  must 
first  be  made  of  the  map  to  be  reproduced,  which  may 
be  printed  from  the  patched-up  field  sketches.  The 
plate  is  then  placed  in  a  printing  frame  with  the  nega- 
tive, which  latter  must  face  away  from  the  plate,  to  in- 
sure lettering,  etc.,  reading  correctly  on  the  finished 
print.  The  exposure  depends  upon  the  intensity  of  the 
light,  and  also  upon  the  transparency  of  the  negative, 
varying  from  10  to  15  minutes.  The  progress  of  the 
printing  may  be  observed  by  opening  the  frame  at  in- 
tervals* care  being  taken  not  to  alter  the  relative  posi- 
tions of  the  plate  and  the  negative. 

Immediately  upon  removal  from  the  printing  frame, 
the  whole  plate  is  covered  with  ink  from  the  roller,  to 
prevent  further  action  by  light.     It  is  then  developed 


196  PREPAREDNESS  x\ND  THE  ENGINEER 

in  water,  as  in  the  ordinary  blue  print  process.  While 
still  immersed  in  the  water  the  ink  may  be  wiped  off 
with  cheese-cloth.  When  fully  developed  the  plate  is 
removed  from  the  water  and  dried  by  fanning,  then 
dusted  with  powdered  resin,  the  surplus  of  which  is 
wiped  off.  .  The  process  of  etching  and  printing  then 
proceeds  as  in  the  first  method. 

The  plate  may  be  prepared  for  further  use  by  remov- 
ing the  ink  with  turpentine  and  washing  thoroughly 
with  lye.  Regraining  is  necessary  only  after  the  plate 
has  been  used  a  number  of  times. 

The  first  method  is  better  adapted  to  field  use,  but 
the  second  will  do  finer  work.  It  is  even  possible  to  re- 
produce photographs  by  printing  from  a  film  or  nega- 
tive on  the  sensitized  plate. 

The  .zincograph  is  a  part  of  the  equipment  carried 
by  the  engineer  battalion  in  the  field.  Each  company 
is  equipped  with  a  clay  hectograph^  from  which  about 
50  copies  can  be  made  from  one  impression. 

The  sketch  is  copied  in  transfer  ink,  laid  face  down 
upon  the  level  clay  surface  and  allowed  to  remain  for 
one  or  two  minutes.  Printing  is  done  by  laying  blank 
sheets  of  paper  on  the  clay,  smoothing  them  out  and 
taking  them  off  immediately.  Sketches  may  be  repro- 
duced by  this  method  in  three  colors. 

LANDSCAPE  SKETCHING. 

Sometimes  information  may  be  better  conveyed  by 
a  landscape  sketch  than  by  a  map,  particularly  as  to 
relief.  It  may  take  a  great  deal  of  mapping  to  make 
clear  what  can  often  be  shown  by  a  few 
strokes  of  the  pencil.  The  sketch  also  has  ttie  ad- 
vantage of  showing  in  detail  just  what  points  it  is  de- 
sired to  bring  out,  leaving  non-essentials  out  entirely  or 
subordinating  them  to  the  important  points.  A  photo- 
graph cannot  do  this,  as  it  must  show  all  that  is  before 


TOPOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHING 


197 


198  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

the  camera,  and  in  its  very  accuracy  and  fidelity  to 
actual  conditions,  the  military  information  which  it  is 
desired  to  emphasize  may  be  entirely  lost. 

Fig.  75  is  an  excellent  example  of  a  sketch  of  this 
character,  reproduced  from  the  Engineer  Field  Man- 
ual. This  shows  features  which  would  have  necessitat- 
ed actually  traversing  the  terrain  and  the  expenditure 
of  much  time  to  show  on  a  map,  and  even  then  the  in- 
formation would  not  stand  out  at  a  glance  as  it  does  in 
the  sketch. 

In  making  a  sketch  of  this  character  the  pad  is  held 
out  in  front  of  the  eye  until  it  covers  the  area  intended 
to  be  drawn.  Then,  lowering  it  slightly,  the  position 
of  the  various  hill  tops,  road  crossings,  etc.,  which  it  is 
desired  to  show  are  marked  off  on  the  upper  edge  of  the 
pad.  Similarly,  the  vertical  distances  are  marked  off 
on  one  side  of  the  pad.  The  co-ordinates  of  all  the  im- 
portant points  are  thus  determined  and  the  completion 
of  the  sketch  consists  of  connecting  these  points  and 
filling  in  such  detail  as  may  be  required.  Heavy  lines 
are  used  for  outlines  of  objects  in  the  foreground, 
medium  for  those  at  mid-distance  and  light  for  distant 
objects. 

An  excellent  treatise  upon  the  subject  is  M.  Lefeb- 
vre's  *' Military  Landscape  Sketching,"  translated  by 
Capt.  Judson,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army,  and 
published  as  ^  ^  Occasional  Papers  No.  3  "  by  the  Engine- 
er School,  Washington  Barracks,  Wa#;hington,  D.  C. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
FIELD  FORTIFICATIONS— ADDENDA. 

"With  the  constantly  increasing  volume  and  accu- 
racy of  artillery  fire  in  the  European  War  has  de- 
veloped the  ingenuity  of  those  subjected  to  this  fire 
in  contriving  expedients  to  protect  themselves. 

The  close  proximity  of  hostile  trenches,  quick 
changes  from  defensive  to  offensive  and  the  reverse, 
and  the  dense  concentration  of  troops  upon  the  west- 
ern battle  front  have  all  tended  to  convey  the  im- 
pression that  the  art  of  fortification  was  undergoing 
a  radical  change.  The  principles  of  field  fortifica- 
tion, however,  do  not  change ;  it  is  only  in  the  details 
and  manner  of  applying  these  principles  that  varia- 
tions may"  be  observed. 

PROJECTILES 

The  developments  in  projectiles  have  .been  along  the 
line  of  artillery  projectiles  of  greater  searching  power, 
of  aerial  mines  and  of  grenades. 

Artillery  Projectiles, 

Artillery  projectiles  are  given  greater  searching 
power  by  increasing  the  angle  of  their  bursting  sheaf. 

A  common  shrapnel  bursts  with  a  sheaf  of  14°. 
Half  this,  added  to  the  angle  of  fall  of  the  shell,  11° 
at  3,000  yards,  fixes  18°  or  about  one  upon  three  as 
the  angle  of  fall  of  bullets  and  fragments  at  this 
range.  Upon  narrow  trenches  and  overhead  cover, 
therefore,  the  searching  power  of  such  a  projectile  is 
small. 

The  German  77  m.m.  high  explosive  shell  bursts 
with  a  hollow  sheaf  of  114°,  so  that  its  fragments  have 
considerable   effect  in   searching  deep   trenches,   the 

199 


200  PREPAREDNESS   AND   TPIE  ENGINEER 

'  angle  of  fall  being  about  65°.  The  fragments  are 
effective  at.  a  distance  of  fifteen  yards  from  the  burst. 

The  German  105  m.m.  combination  shell,  however, 
bursts  with  a  hollow  sheaf  of  200°  of  shrapnel  bullets 
and  splinters,  while  the  nose  of  the  shell,  containing  a 
charge  of  high  explosive,  continues  on  its  course  and 
explodes  upon  impact.  The  shell  bursting  upon  the 
ground,  or  the  nose  alone,  will  scatter  fragments  in 
all  directions.  They  are  effective  at  a  distance  of 
twenty-five  yards.  When  fired  from  a  mortar,  this 
shell,  with  its  wide  bursting  angle  and  steep  fall,  is 
very  effective  in  searching  out  space  provided  with 
overhead  cover.  Such  a  shell  bursting  immediately  in 
rear  of  a  trench  is  extremely  dangerous  to  the  occu- 
pants, unless  they  are  protected  by  a  substantial 
parados. 

The  following  table  gives  the  overhead  cover  re- 
quired for  protection  against  high  explosive  shell, 
with  percussion  fuse,  from  the  various  German  field 
pieces.  "Where  logs  and  earth  are  specified,  the  former 
should  be  in  two  layers,  one  to  support  the  earth,  the 
other  at  or  near  the  surface,  to  cause  the  shell  to  burst 
by  impact  before  penetrating  the  earth.  A  layer  of 
rails  or  stones  will  be  even  more  effective.  This  de- 
tonating layer  should  preferably  be  covered  with  some 
earth,  to  prevent  its  being  scattered  by  the  bursting 
shell.  It  is  said  that  cover  composed  of  two  layers  of 
12-inch  logs,  separated  by  one  foot  of  earth,  has  suc- 
cessfully resisted  six-inch  high  explosive  shell. 

Kece  Cover  Required. 

77  m.m.   (3'')   gun 3  ft.  to  4  ft.  earth. 

105  m.m.   (r)  mortar 7  ft.  to  10  ft.  earth. 

150  m.m.   (6")  howitzer. . .  2  ft.  6  in.  logs,  2  ft.  earth. 
210  m.m.   (8'0  howitzer. . .  3  f t.  6  in.  logs,  3  ft.  earth, 

rails,  stone,  etc. 
280  m..m.   (IV)  howitzer. .  .17    ft.    to    33    ft.    undis- 
turbed earth. 


FIELD  FORTIFICATIONS — ADDENDA  201 

Aerial  Mines. 

Aerial  mines,  thrown  from  catapults  or  trench 
mortars,  contain  charges  of  high  explosives  varying 
from  2.2  to  110  pounds.  They  detonate  upon  impact, 
and  are  used  principally  on  account  of  their  destruc- 
tive effect  upon  opposing  trenches.  They  will  break 
down  traverses  and  overhead  cover,  and  cave  in 
trench  walls,  destroying  firing  parapets  and  obstruct- 
ing communications. 

Grenades. 

Grenades  are  the  standard  weapon  for  trench  fight- 
ing. They  are  maiming  rather  than  fatal  in  their 
effects,  are  terribly  effective,  and  are  very  difficult  to 
guard  against.  They  were  at  first  made  by  the  troops 
themselves,  from  jam  tins,  pieces  of  pipe  or  plank, 
etc.,  and  were  often  as  dangerous  to  the  thrower  as 
to  the  enemy.  They  are  now  an  article  of  manu- 
facture and  issue,  and  are  of  many  types.  The  two 
principal  classifications  are  as  to  the  manner  of  pro- 
jecting, by  rifles  and  by  hand. 

Bifle  grenades  are  fired  from  the  service  rifle,  being 
either  mounted  upon  a  sort  of  ramrod  which  enters 
the  barrel  and  is  projected  by  a  special  blank  cart- 
ridge (British  type),  or  inserted  in  a  special  cylin- 
drical cup  which  is  fitted  to  the  muzzle  of  the  rifle 
and  projected  by  the  service  cartridge  (French  type). 
Both  these  grenades  are  of  the  percussion  type,  ex- 
ploding upon  impact.  They  have  a  range  of  250  to 
350  yards. 

Hand  grenades  may  be  of  the  percussion,  ignition 
or  meckanical  type.  In  the  former  the  firing  pin  is  at 
the  front  end,  and  the  bomb  is  provided  with 
streamers  or  *^ tails"  to  insure  its  striking  head  on. 
Such  bombs  are  usually  prepared  for  throwing  by 
removing    a.   safety    pin,    thus    freeing    the    firing 


202  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

plunger.  Their  principal  danger  lies  in  striking  the 
firing  pin  on  the  parados  in  the  act  of  throwing,  thus 
causing  a  premature  explosion. 

The  ignition  types  require  lighting  of  their  fuse  be- 
fore throwing.  This  may  be  done  in  the  various 
types  by  (1)  removing  a  safety  cap  and  striking  the 
fuse  on  a  friction  pad  held  in  the  left  hand  or  worn 
upon  the  sleeve,  (2)  forcibly  withdrawing  a  friction 
tube  from  the  bomb,  or  (3)  attaching  the  ring  of  a 
friction  primer  in  the  bomb  to  a  lanyard  looped 
around  the  wrist,  so  that  the  act  of  throwing  the 
grenade  ignites  the  fuse.  The  usual  ignition  bomb 
has  a  five-second  fuse,  and  where  the  range  is  short 
it  must  be  held  two  or  three  seconds  before  throwing, 
otherwise  it  may  be  thrown  back  by  the  enemy. 

The  mechanical  type  contains  an  interior  fuse  end- 
ing in  a  detonator  and  ignited  by  a  cap  resting  under 
a  spring  plunger.  This  plunger  is  prevented  from 
falling  by  a  lever  fitting  in  a  groove  on  the  outside 
of  the  bomb  and  held  in  place  by  a  safety  pin.  The 
pin  is  removed  after  taking  the  bomb  in  the  hand 
preparatory  to  throwing,  the  pressure  of  the  hand 
clasping  the  lever  to  the  bomb  case.  As  the  latter 
is  cast,  the  lever  is  released,  the  plunger  drops  upon 
the  cap,  and  the  fuse  is  ignited.  This  type  is  one  of 
the  most  satisfactory  and  successful  of  those  used. 

Protection  against  grenades  is  effected:  first,  by 
keeping  enemy  bombers  at  a  distance  of  forty  or  fifty 
yards,  extending  the  entanglements  to  this  distance 
and  filling  in  all  approaches  within  this  radius  that 
can  afford  cover  to  a  bombing  attack;  second,  by 
giving  to  all  parapets  and  embankments  a  slope  away 
from  the  trench,  so  that  grenades  falling  upon  them 
will  not  roll  into  it ;  third,  by  erecting  sloping  screens 
of  wire  netting  or  other  material  over  the  parapet,  of 
such  height  that  bombs  clearing  it  will  fall  behind  the 
trench;  fourth,  by  providing  individual  recesses  in 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS — ADDENDA  203 

the  parapet  (Fig.  23,  p.  94),  thus  limiting  the  sphere 
of  action  of  the  bomb;  and  fifth,  by  unceasing  vigi- 
lance and  activity  on  the  part  of  the  defenders' 
grenadiers. 

TRENCH  DETAILS 

Developments  Due  to  Close  Contact.  When  enemy 
trenches  lie  within  a  hundred  yards  or  less,  as  in 
many  localities  along  the  western  front  in  Europe, 
concealment  is  often  no  longer  possible,  and  every- 
thing is  subordinated  to  strength  and  protection. 
Heavy  parapet  sections,  head  and  overhead  cover,  and 
other  devices  usually  considered  inimical  to  conceal- 
ment, are  in  common  use.  Bomb  screens,  made  of 
wire  netting,  and  always  very  conspicuous,  are  a  ne- 
cessity at  such  close  quarters,  to  prevent  the  en- 
emy 's  throwing  hand  grenades  into  the  trench. 

A  development  of  this  sort  of  warfare  is  the  self- 
stipportmg  trench,  i.e.,  one  which  is  capable  of  shel- 
tering not  only  its  proper  garrison,  but  sufficient  sup- 
ports to  reinforce  the  firing  line  and  to  replace  casu- 
alties.    This  is  rendered  necessary  by: 

1.  The  comparatively  short  distance  to  be  trav- 
elled by  the  enemy  in  charging  the  fire  trench,  and 

2.  The  device  of  barrage  fire  or  the  curtain  of  fire 
which  is  directed  at  a  belt  between  a  fire  trench  and 
its  supports  to  prevent  the  bringing  up  of  reinforce- 
ments at  a  critical  moment. 

Not  only,  therefore,  must  the  supports  be  sheltered 
in  or  very  near  the  firing  trench,  but  the  regular 
garrison,  which  is  usually  kept  in  the  rear  during 
the  artillery  bombardment  which  precedes  an  attack, 
must  be  kept  in  the  front  line.  This  necessitates 
overhead  cover  for  both  parties  until  the  artillery 
fire  is  lifted  preparatory  to  the  infantry  assault. 

This  may  be  provided  in  two  ways: 

First,  by  reducing  the  distance  between  fire  and 


204 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


Commun/cafion     Trenche.^^      ^S/ie/fer  Trenches-^ 
TTPE  A 


^Xommunicafion  7h 

TYPE  B 

FIG.    76.      SHELTER    TRENCH    CLOSE    IN    REAR    OF    FIRE 
TRENCH 

shelter  trenches,  as  in  Fig.  76,  Avith  frequent  commu- 
nicating trenches. 

Second,  by  constructing  the  front  line  trench  with 
overhead  cover,  splinter  proofs,  trench  shelters,  dug- 


FIG.    77.      SPUR  FIRE   TRENCHES 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS — ADDENDA  205 

outs,  etc.,  and  even  with  looplioles  for  observation, 
sniping,  etc.,  and  extending  narrow  spur  trenches, 
without  head  or  overhead  cover,  to  the  front,  from 
which  trenches  infantry  attacks  are  met  and  sorties 
and  counter  attacks  made.     (Fig.  77.) 

The  cover  constructed  in  the  front  line  trenches 


FIG.    (0.      SPLINTER   PROOF 


may  take  various  forms,  a  splinter  proof,  for  about 
a  squad  of  men  (Fig.  78),  a  trench  shelter,  in  which 
men  may  lie  at  length  and  be  protected  during  sleep 
(Fig.  79),  or  a  dugout,  which  is  a  very  deep,  com- 
pletely timbered  excavation  under  the  parapet  (Fig. 
80),  in  which  a  portion  of  the  trench  garrison  may 
live,  protected  from  all  but  the  heavy  explosive  shell. 
These  dugouts  sometimes  develop  into  very  complete 


206 


PREPAREDNESS   AND    THE   ENGINEER 


FIG.    79.       TRENCH    SHELTER 

underground  barracks.  Their  principal  disadvantage 
lies  in  their  vulnerability  to  bomb  attack.  The  enemy, 
upon  capturing  a  trench,  will  always  bomb  the  dug- 


•^I'O" 


'^/4:cr 


FIG.    80.      DUGOUT 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS — ADDENDA  207 

outs  as  a  matter  of  routine,  in  order  to  protect  his 
rear  from  reverse  fire  after  passing  on.  This  objec- 
tion may  be  overcome  in  a  way  by  constructing  the 
entrance  passage  with  two  turns  in  its  length. 
Usually,  however,  the  steepness  of  the  passage  will  in- 
sure that  a  bomb  thrown  in  from  above  reaches  the 
dugout,  or,  at  the  most,  the  enemy  will  be  put  to  the 
trouble  of  advancing  to  the  first  turn  to  hurl  his 
grenade. 

Each  dugout,  or  cave  shelter,  should  be  provided 
with  two  exits,  in  case  one  is  blockaded  by  falling 
earth.  These  two  entrances  should  not  be  upon  op- 
posite sides  of  a  traverse,  as  both  might  be  closed  by 
a  direct  hit  upon  the  latter  by  a  large  shell. 

A  very  good  reason  is  advanced  for  placing  such 
shelters  out  in  front  of  the  trench,  under  the  en- 
tanglements. The  enemy,  in  attempting  to  destroy 
the  latter,  times  his  shell  to  explode  at  the  ground  sur- 
face or  slightly  above,  to  obtain  the  full  effect  of  the 
explosion  among  the  wires.  The  earth  cover  of  the 
dugout  is  therefore  not  greatly  injured,  as  the  shells 
do  not  penetrate  before  exploding.  The  efficiency  of 
a  shallow  roof  may  be  greatly  increased  by  placing  a 
layer  of  hard  material,  logs,  rails,  stone,  etc.,  at  or 
near  the  ground  surface  to  cause  early  bursts.  In 
order  to  leave  a  roof  of  undisturbed  earth,  as  well  as 
to  avoid  rehandling  of  the  earth,  these  shelters  are 
constructed  by  the  methods  of  military  mining. 
(p.  118.) 

Overhead  cover  of  the  splinter  proof  variety  is  ob- 
jectionable in  a  fire  trench.  It  is  always  falling  in 
under  bombardment,  not  only  injuring  the  men  un- 
derneath, but  destroying  a  length  of  firing  parapet 
at  a  critical  time,  just  when  an  attack  is  imminent. 
This  is  not  a  vital  objection  in  shelter  trenches,  from 
which  ordinarily  no  fire  will  be  delivered,  and  where 
there  is  sufficient  space  to  construct  this  cover  in 


208 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


small  units,  so  that  little  damage  is  done  by  each 
direct  hit. 

There  is  a  strong  tendency  among  the  defenders 
of  a  trench  to  cower  under  overhead  cover,  if  at 
hand,  or  to  dive  into  dugouts,  as  its  capture  becomes 
imminent.  Their  annihilation  follows  as  a  matter 
of  course.     To  insure  that  the  defense  will  be  vigor- 


FIG.  81.   SORTIE  STEPS  IN  FACE  OP  TRENCH 


ously  prosecuted  until  the  last,  therefore,  all  such 
cover  should  be  banished  from  the  trench  in  which 
the  attack  is  actually  to  be  met.  Means  should  also 
be  provided  for  quickly  leaving  the  trench  in  case 
of  a  sortie  or  counter  attack.  (See  p.  98.)  An  ef- 
fective device  for  this  purpose  is  shown  in  Fig.  81. 
At  the  preparatory  signal  for  attack,  the  soldier 
takes  his  rifle  in  the  right  hand,  seizes  the  stake  with 
his  left  and  places  his  left  foot  in  the  lower  step, 
crouching  so  that  his  head  is  below  the  parapet.    At 


FIELD  FORTIFICATIONS — ^ADDENDA 


209 


the  signal  to  attack  he  straightens  up,  places  the 
right  foot  in  the  ijpper  step,  then  the  left  upon  the 
parapet,  and  advances  to  the  front.  (Fig.  82.)  To 
avoid  splitting  off  the  face  of  the  parapet  when  a 


FIG.    82.      LEAVING   TRENCH    BY    SORTIE    STEPS 


man 's  weight  is  thrown  upon  these  stakes,  they  should 
be  anchored  back  by  wires  to  a  second  stake  built  into 
the  parapet.  If  necessary  for  concealment  or  pro- 
tection, the  stakes  may  be  set  in  a  small  recess  cut 
into  the  rear  face  of  the  parapet,  although  they  will 
stand  considerable  rifle  fire.     In  the  trenches  con- 


210 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


structed  by  the  22nd  N.  Y.  Engineers  at  McAllen, 
Texas,  1916,  such  a  stake,  two  inches  square,  and  pro- 
jecting four  inches  from  the  ground,  withstood  a  test 
of  twelve  shots  fired  through  it  without  becoming 
unserviceable. 

Fire  Trench  Cover.  No  form  of  cover  so  far  de- 
vised can  safeguard  a  fire  trench  against  high  explo- 
sive shell.  The  best  that  may  be  done  is  to  provide 
cover  from  shrapnel,  rifle  and  machine-gun  fire,  to 
present  as  small  a  target  as  possible,  to  avoid  undue 


jtlX- 


FIG. 


wmt» 

83.      TRENCH    WITH    COVERED   PASSAGEV^AY 


concentration  and  to  seek  concealment  from  the  en- 
emy's artillery  observers.  The  following  types  are 
suitable  for  trenches  from  which  fire  is  to  be  deliv- 
ered, but  which  are  not  to  be  used  for  resisting  an 
infantry  assault,  as  the  main  trench  in  Fig.  77,  and 
shelter  trenches  designed  for  auxiliary  fire. 

A  deep  narrow  trench,  with  a  strong  parados,  will 
protect  its  occupants  from  the  black  blast  of  high  ex- 
plosive shell,  and  a  direct  hit  is  usually  necessary  to 
inflict  much  damage.  The  effect  of  such  a  hit  is  local- 
ized by  frequent  traverses  and  parapet  recesses.  It 
has  been  found,  however,  that  the  advantage  gained 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS — ADDENDA 


211 


by  very  narrow  trenches  is  counteracted  by  the  diffi- 
culty of  maintaining  communication  along  them  when 
occupied.  The  types  shown  in  Fig.  21,  p.  92,  and 
Fig.  27,  p.  97,  eliminate  the  crowding,  but  present 
too  wide  an  opening.  Fig.  83  shows  a  type  afford- 
ing overhead  cover  to  both  garrison   (when  not  fir- 

f=brape/-  Oeconc/ 
Line  of  Hne 


Oonf/nuous 
Loophoh 


FIG.    84.      CONTINUOUS    LOOPHOLED    TRENCH,    DOUBLE 
LINE   OP   FIRE 


ing)  and  passageway,  but  presenting  no  wider  open- 
ing than  a  simple  standing  trench.  In  such  a  type 
the  passageway  would  probably  tunnel  through  the 
traverses  instead  of  encircling  them. 

Fig.  84  is  a  loopholed  trench  with  overhead  cover 
to  protect  the  occupants  while  firing,  with  provision 
for  a  second  line  of  fire  from  the  step  in  the  rear. 
The  loophole  shown  is  of  the  continuous  type,  which 


212 


PREPAREDNESS   AND  THE  ENGINEER 


FIG.    85.      TRENCH   FOR  FIRE   THROUGH   AND   OVER 
PARAPET 


FIG.    86.      INCLOSED    TRENCH 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS — ^ADDENDA  213 

is  difficult  to  conceal,  but  permits  a  wide  field  of  fire. 

Fig.  85  shows  a  trencfi  designed  for,  a  small  reg- 
ular garrison,  provided  with  head  cover  and  loop- 
holes, but  with  a  higher  banquette  between  loopholes, 
so  that  in  repulsing  an  attack  the  supports  may  man 
these  raised  sections  and  fire  over  the  parapet. 

Fig.  86  is  an  inclosed  trench  similar  to  Fig.  28,  p. 
98,  but  constructed  with  a  type  *^C"  loophole  (Fig. 
24,  p.  95),  and  with  a  steel  plate  at  its  throat  con- 
taining a  T-shaped  opening.     From  the  front  these 


Open  for  Firing  Shutters  Partly  Closed 

FIG  87.      HOPPER  LOOPHOLES 

loopholes  are  very  conspicuous,  showing  black 
shadows  (Fig.  87),  so  they  are  usually  built  with 
a  light  shutter,  operated  from  the  inside  and  lying 
upon  the  floor  of  the  loophole  when  the  later  is  in 
use.  When  closed  these  shutters  or  screens  conceal 
the  loopholes  very  effectively. 

Loopholes,  The  type  described  above  is  useful  for 
general  firing  only,  in  stopping  an  attack  or  in  night 
firing  upon  a  working  party  disclosed  by  a  flare  or 
other  form  of  illumination.  To  occupy  such  a  loop- 
hole for  sniping  or  observation  in  daylight  is  suicidal, 
as  it  is  most  conspicuous  when  the  shutter  is  lowered 
for   use.     Loopholes   for   this   purpose   are   usually 


214  PREPAREDNESS   AND    THE   ENGINEER 

placed  obliquely  to  the  front,  and  every  care  taken 
for  their  concealment.  It  is  said,  however,  that  with 
all  possible  precautions  in  their  construction  and  use, 
they  seldom  remain  undiscovered  for  more  than  a 
week,  and  once  located  they  are  speedily  made  un- 
tenable. 

It  is  reported  that  the  Germans  place  black  sand 
bags  at  intervals  in  their  parapets,  rendering  it  very 
difficult  to  distinguish  the  true  loopholes,  whose 
shadows  are  so  closely  simulated  by  the  dark  colored 
bags.  This  device  may  be  successful  in  concealing 
the  location  of  the  loopholes,  but  it  certainly  renders 
the  parapet  very  conspicuous,  which  is  usually  to  be 
carefully  avoided. 

A  good  loophole  may  be  made  by  two  steel  rails 
tilted  together,  heads  and  flanges  in  contact.  Fig.  88 
(a).  A  very  limited  angle  of  fire  is  thus  afforded, 
however,  and  if  an  attempt  is  made  to  increase  it  by 
separating  the  outer  ends  of  the  rails,  the  resulting 
loophole  will  collect  bullets  like  a  funnel,  deflecting 
them  to  the  eye  end.  Separating  the  inner  ends,  how- 
ever, improves  the  cover,  allows  a  larger  angle  of 
fire,  and  presents  only  a  small  opening  to  the  enemy 's 
observation. 

The  French  use  a  steel  parapet  shield,  28  in.  x 
16  in.,  provided  with  a  small  loophole  and  two  pro- 
jecting feet,  upon  which  a  sand  bag  is  laid  to  hold  the 
shield  in  position.  This  shield  is  0.45  inches  thick  and 
weighs  66  pounds.  Fig.  88  (b).  A  more  portable 
form,  used  by  the  soldier  as  cover  for  his  firing  and 
digging-in  operations,  is  20  inches  square,  0.33  inches 
thick,  and  weighs  33  pounds.    Fig.  88  (c). 

Traverses  require  a  greater  thickness  than  formerly 
considered  necessary.  Three  feet  of  natural  earth,  as 
ordinarily  used,  will  stop  rifle  bullets,  but  will  crumble 
away  under  machine  gun  fire.  Furthermore,  a  direct 
Jiit  by  a  high  explosive  shell  will  destroy  any  except  a 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS — ADDENDA 


215 


very  thick  traverse.  Thicknesses  of  seven  to  nine  feet 
are  no  longer  uncommon,  and  in  many  trenches  as 
now  laid  out  the  traverses,  with  the  passages  around 
them,  occupy  as  much  space  as  the  fire  bays  between. 
The  fire  trench  may  be  further  divided  by  recesses  as 


FIG. 


LOOPHOLES  AND  SHIELDS 


in  Fig.  23,  p.  94,  for  better  protection  against  shell 
and  grenades. 

All  this  greatly  reduces  the  available  length  of  fir- 
ing parapet,  and  is  made  possible  only  by  the  great 
development  of  fire  from  machine  guns  and  auto- 
matic rifles,  reducing  the  number  of  riflemen  re- 
quired to  hold  a  given  line. 


216  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

This  loss  of  firing  parapet  is  sometimes  partially 
compensated  for  by  constructing  reversed  traverses, 
in  which  the  trench  is  conducted  around  the  front 
of  the  traverse  instead  of  around  the  rear.  This  per- 
mits a  greater  length  of  firing  trench,  and  a  good  posi- 
tion for  a  machine  gun  emplacement  or  an  observing 
station  is  thus  provided,  but  the  passage  in  the  front 
is  not  so  safe  as  in  the  rear,  and  the  riflemen  in  this 
position  are  in  the  way  of  oblique  fire  which  may 
become  necessary  from  adjoining  bays.  If  such  a 
construction  must  be  adopted,  it  is  better  to  make 
the  passage  in  the  rear,  and  the  fire  trench  in  front, 
thus  forming  a  detached  or  island  traverse. 

A  caponiere  traverse,  or  trench  blockhouse,  is  a 
thick  hollow  traverse,  built  of  concrete  and  steel  rails, 
with  space  inside  for  a  small  garrison.  Its  walls  are 
pierced  by  loopholes  for  rifle  and  machine  gun  fire 
along  the  line  of  the  trench.  It  is  entered  from  a 
dugout  or  a  passage  under  the  parapet,  opening  into 
adjacent  fire  bays,  and  its  purpose  is  to  check  the 
spread  of  an  attack,  particularly  of  bombing  parties, 
along  the  trench. 

Machine  Gun  Shelter,  The  tendency  in  machine 
gun  shelters  is  towards  the  flanking  fire  type  of  em- 
placement. (Fig.  31,  p.  101.)  The  increased  se- 
curity of  the  piece  and  the  greater  difficulty  experi- 
enced by  the  enemy  in  locating  the  emplacement 
compensate  for  the  loss  of  frontal  fire.  Furthermore, 
a  burst  of  machine  gun  fire  upon  the  flank  of  an  at- 
tacking line,  delivered  as  a  surprise  after  silence 
during  the  earlier  stages,  is  particularly  demoraliz- 
ing, and  will  often  break  up  an  apparently  success- 
ful attack. 

Emplacements  are  now  usually  built  with  overhead 
cover  and  loopholes.  (Fig.  89.)  The  gun  occupies 
the  emplacement  only  when  in  use  or  when  about  to 
be  used,  and  nearby  shelter  of  the  splinter  proof  type 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS — ^ADDENDA 


217 


FIG.   89.      MACHINE   GUN  EMPLACEMENT,   OVERHEAD 
COVER 

is  provided  for  the  gun  and  its  crew  during  an  ar- 
tillery bombardment.  The  flanks  of  trenches  and  in 
rear  of  the  intervals  between  trenches  are  the  most 
effective  machine  gun  positions. 

For  constructing  emplacements  in  a  line  of  trenches, 


218  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE  ENGINEER 

where  concealment  is  difficult,  concrete  and  steel  rails 
are  frequently  used,  and  a  structure  is  built  which 
will  withstand  a  heavy  bombardment. 

The  French  favor  removing  machine  guns  entirely 
from  the  infantry  trenches,  as  they  draw  artillery  fire. 
Their  emplacements  are  often  constructed  in  shell 
holes  in  front  of  the  firing  trench,  and  connected 
with  the  latter  by  a  tunnel  or  sap.  An  irregular 
parados  is  thrown  up  to  protect  the  gun  crew  from 
the  fire  of  their  own  infantry,  a  gun  platform  is 
erected,  and  the  front  lip  of  the  shell  crater  forms  the 
parapet.  The  position  is  not  occupied  until  about  to 
fire,  and  there  is  nothing  in  the  appearance  of  the 
position  to  distinguish  it  from  numerous  other  shell 
holes  in  the  vicinity. 

Communicating  Trenches,  To  save  revetment,  these 
are  usually  constructed  with  sloping  sides,  with  a 
slight  berm  at  the  ground  level  to  remove  the  weight 
of  the  parapet  from  the  edge  of  the  trench.  They  are 
revetted  as  maintenance  requires,  and  usually  become 
wider  by  repeated  processes  of  caving  and  cleaning 
out.  A  wide  trench  is  not  so  safe  to  pass  through 
under  fire,  but  may  be  travelled  at  a  more  rapid  rate, 
thus  keeping  one  for  a  less  time  in  the  danger  zone. 
If  constructed  narrow,  certain  trenches  should  be 
designated  for  one-way  traffic. 

Lines  of  main  communication  should  not  cross, 
especially  if  they  are  liable  to  be  used  at  the  same 
time.  Unimportant  lines,  however^  may  cross  main 
lines,  in  which  case  confusion  as  to  direction  is 
avoided  by  making  the  main  trench  about  a  foot 
deeper  at  the  intersection. 

In  case  of  the  enemy's  obtaining  a  foothold  in  the 
firing  trench,  the  communicating  trenches  are 
arranged  for  a  stubborn  step  by  step  defense  as  the 
enemy  advances.  The  following  methods  of  prepar- 
ing for  such  defense  are  recommended  : 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS — ADDENDA  219 

The  ground  between  the  fire  and  support 
trenches  is  covered  by  entanglements,  to  insure  that 
the  attack  will  advance  along  the  communicating 
trenches,  rather  than  overland. 

Eecesses  for  bombers  are  placed  behind  the  turns 
in  the  trench,  from  which  the  enemy  is  bombarded 
by  grenades  as  he  occupies  the  section  ahead. 

Portable  or  collapsible  wire  obstacles  are  placed 
in  recesses  at  the  sides,  to  be  pulled  into  the  trench 
by  the  retreating  defenders. 

Caponiere  traverses  are  built  across  the  trench 
at  intervals,  from  which  it  is  enfiladed  by  rifle  or 
machine  gun  fire  through  loopholes.  This  is  some- 
times done  from  a  recess  built  at  the  rear  end  of  a 
straight  stretch,  entered  by  a  narrow  passage  from 
the  side  of  the  next  stretch  in  rear..  Care  should 
be  taken  thai:  (1)  these  recesses  and  traverses  are 
provided  with  overhead  cover,  to  deflect  grenades; 
(2)  that  the  loopholes  are  low,  so  the  enemy  cannot 
advance  to  them  by  crawling  and  throw  in  grenades 
or  thrust  through  with  a  bayonet;  (3)  that  the 
entrance  to  such  recesses  is  not  straight,  otherwise 
the  occupants  might  be  injured  by  fragments  of 
grenades  exploding  in  rear. 

Further  to  the  rear,  two  main  communicating 
trenches  may  be  led  to  a  junction,  at  which  is 
placed  a  strong  island  traverse,  performing  the 
functions  of  the  caponieres  as  described  above. 
The  passage  leads  around  both  sides  of  this 
traverse,  so  that  no  restriction  of  the  traffic  results, 
and  there  is  the  great  advantage  that  either  or  both 
of  the  forward  branches  can  be  swept  by  fire,  i.e., 
the  enemy  may  be  held  under  fire  in  one,  while  the 
defending  troops  are  still  retreating  through  or 
contesting  the  possession  of  the  other. 

Dummy  trenches  leading  into  cul-de-sacs  are  run 
out  from  trench  intersections  to  confuse  the  enemy. 


220  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE  ENGINEER 

These  trenches  bear  the  appearance  of  much 
travel,  and  misleading  directions  are  placed  at  the 
intersection.  A  common  device  in  connection  with 
these  dummy  trenches  is  to  gradually  raise  their 
floors,  so  that  the  enemy,  in  hot  pursuit,  suddenly 
finds  his  head  above  ground  and  under  fire  from 
neighboring  support  trenches. 

Bevetments,  Eevetting  materials  in  most  common 
use  in  Europe  are:  sand  bags,  corrugated  iron,  ex- 
panded metal,  canvas,  and  planks.  They  are  required 
in  such  enormous  quantities  that  every  effort  is  made 
to  economize  by  sloping  trench  walls  to  make  them 
self-sustaining,  and  revetting  only  for  repairs  or 
where  absolutely  required.  Sand  bags  are  the  most 
common  type,  and  form  at  least  the  upper  part  of 
nearly  all  fire  trench  revetments.  In  laying  up  a  full 
revetment  of  sand  bags,  the  foundation  is  excavated 
below  the  floor  of  the  trench,  and  the  bags  laid  up 
as  carefully  as  first-class  masonry.  The  bags  are  filled 
about  two-thirds  full,  and  are  squared  and  flattened 
in  place  by  mallets.  The  firing  step  is  built  up  against 
this  revetment,  using  preferably  fascines  of  brush, 
which  insures  dry  footing.  Corrugated  iron,  when 
used,  is  laid  up  behind  stakes  or  studding,  anchored 
back  at  the  top,  but  the  principal  use  of  this  material 
is  in  roofs  of  splinter  proofs,  etc.,  being  more  nearly 
water  proof  than  the  usual  roof  of  poles  or  boards. 

Expanded  metal  and  wire  netting  are  used  in  a 
similar  manner,  but  in  loose  soil  canvas  or  empty 
sand  bags  must  be  placed  behind  them.  Planks  are 
either  laid  up  on  edge  behind  stakes,  as  described  for 
corrugated  iron,  or  on  end,  held  in  place  by  a  waling 
piece  at  the  top. 

In  permanent  trenches  concrete  has  been  largely 
used.  It  is  built  in  place,  the  trench  wall  being  used 
for  one  side  of  the  form,  and  is  very  effective,  as 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS — ^ADDENDA  221 

damage  by  shell  fire  is  comparatively  local  in  char- 
acter. 

EXAMPLE   OF    TRENCH    CONSTRUCTION 

Trenches  Built  hy  the  22nd  N,  Y.  Engineers  on  the 
Mexican  Border.  These  trenches,  a  half  plan  of 
which  is  shown  in  Fig.  90,  were  built  not  only  as  an 
engineering  drill,  but  for  the  instruction  of  the  in- 
fantry, and  were  used  considerably  by  these  organi- 
zations in  their  drills.  It  was  not  intended  that  they 
would  serve  as  defensive  works  against  a  raid  from 
across  the  Border.  To  obtain  the  maximum  amount 
of  instruction,  with  the  minimum  construction,  each 
section  of  parapet  between  traverses  was  finished  in 
a  different  manner,  showing  a  number  of  distinct 
forms  of  treatment,  each  designed  for  some  particu- 
lar condition. 

In  the  remaining  half  of  the  general  plan,  not 
shown  in  Fig.  90,  the  fire  trenches  and  machine  gun 
emplacement  only  were  constructed,  as  the  commu- 
nications and  other  works  in  rear  would  have  been 
duplicates  of  those  shown.  There  were  thiis  a  total 
of  twelve  squad  trenches,  two  machine  gun  em- 
placements, two  observation  stations  and  the  auxiliary 
works  as  shown. 

The  construction  of  this  system  of  trenches  was  not 
begun  with  any  particular  plan  in  view.  In  fact,  the 
order  of  construction  followed  very  closely  the  pro- 
cedure that  would  obtain  under  service  conditions. 
The  ground  was  almost  level,  and  the  grass  tall,  so  a 
position  was  chosen  at  the  military  crest  of  a  slight 
slope,  and  a  line  of  plain  traversed  standing  trench, 
with  a  low  parapet,  was  first  excavated.  Then  a  pas- 
sage trench  was  dug  along  the  rear  of  the  firing  step, 
machine  gun  emplacements  added,  obstacles  with  au- 
tomatic alarm  signals  placed  in  front,  and  the  works 
in  the  rear  commenced,  embracing  successively  lat- 


222 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


rines,  shelter  trenches,  dressing  stations,  bomb  proofs 
and  cover  trenches. 

At  A,  on  the  left  flank,  was  constructed  a  machine 
^n  emplacement  for  all  ground  fire,  similar  to  Fig. 
30,  p.  100.    In  rear  of  this  was  a  splinter  proof  niche, 


,  Cover  Irene/?, 

FIG.    90.      TRENCHES    BUILT    BY    NEW    YORK    ENGINEERS 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS ADDENDA 


223 


B  (Fig.  13,  p.  85),  with  an  overhead  traverse  (Fig. 
37,  p.  117)  at  C  to  protect  from  enfilade  the  trench 
leading  to  it. 

The  first  squad  trench,  D,  was  constructed  with  an 
elbow  rest  (Fig.  91),  firing  step  and  passage  trench. 
The  second  section,  E,  was  similar,  with  the  elbow 
rest  omitted,  resulting  in  a  vertical  face  as  in  Fig. 
21,  p.  92.  To  show  the  cover  provided  by  these  two 
forms  of  trencii;  tapes  were  stretched  from  the  crest 


FIG.    91.      FIRING    TRENCH    WITH    ELBOW    REST 


of  each  parapet  to  the  rear  face,  on  the  slope  of  the 
most  effective  shrapnel  and  long  range  rifle  fire.  The 
photographs,  Figs.  92  and  93,  were  then  taken  of 
the  trenches  occupied  by  men  in  the  firing  position. 
That  portion  of  each  man  above  the  tapes  would  be 
exposed  to  fire.  An  excellent  idea  of  the  compara- 
tive value  of  each  type  as  regards  cover  afforded  is 
thus  obtained. 

The  section  F  was  provided  with  notches  upon  the 
parapet,  for  directing  rifle  fire  upon  any  particular 
object,  as  for  instance  the  entanglements,  at  night. 

The  trench  G  was  recessed  as.  in  Fig.  23,  p.  94. 


224 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


Section  H  was  fitted  with  sortie  steps.  (Fig.  81, 
p.  208.) 

The  next  squad  trench,  I,  was  given  over  to  various 
types  of  revetment. 


FIG.  92.   COVER  AFFORDED  BY  TRENCH  WITH  ELBOW 
REST 

The  six  remaining  sections,  K  to  P,  inclusive  (not 
shown  on  Fig.  90),  were  constructed  as  follows: 
K,  trench  with  firing  step  and  passageway,  with 


FIG.    93.      COVER   AFFORDED   BY    OMITTING   ELBOW   REST 


embrasures  or  firing  notches  formed  by  sand  bags 
on  the  parapet. 

L,  the  same  construction,  but  with  sand  bag  loop- 
holes formed  upon  the  parapet. 


FIELD  FORTIFICATIONS — ADDENDA  225 

M,  a  firing  trench  of  the  same  character,  with  over- 
head cover  formed  by  a  continuous  parapet  shelter 
built  in  the  front  wall  of  the  trench.    (Fig.  27,  p.  97.) 

N,  a  similar  trench,  but  with  the  passageway  built 
under  the  overhead  cover.     (Fig.  83,  p.  210.) 

0,  a  trench  with  overhead  cover,  a  continuous 
loophole  under  the  cover  and  provision  for  a  second 
line  in  rear,  firing  over  the  cover.     (Fig.  84,  p.  211.) 

P,  a  closed  trench  with  hopper  and  steel  plate  loop- 
holes, provided  with  concealing  screens.  (Fig.  86, 
p.  212,  and  Fig.  87,  p.  213.) 

On  the  extreme  right  flank,  R,  was  built  a  machine 
gun  emplacement  for  flank  fire  only,  similar  to  that 
shown  in  Fig.  31,  p.  101,  but  for  one  gun.  A  niche 
and  an  overhead  traverse  to  protect  the  trench  lead- 
ing to  it  were  constructed  as  at  B  and  C. 

In  rear  of  the  firing  line  communication  trenches 
were  built.  At  the  first  bend  in  each  of  these  trenches 
was  constructed  a  latrine  under  splinter  proof  cover. 
The  shelter  trench,  about  thirty  yards  in  rear  of  the 
fire  trenches,  contained  splinter  proof  shelters  for 
the  garrison  of  the  latter  and  for  the  supports,  to  be 
occupied  during  a  shrapnel  bombardment.  A  look 
along  this  straight  trench  as  built  was  sufficient  to 
impress  the  lesson  that  a  machine  gun  or  a  small 
group  of  riflemen  established  upon  one  flank  could 
enfilade  its  entire  length  and  hold  the  men  in  their 
shelters  when  their  presence  was  urgently  required  in 
the  fire  trenches.  A  self-defilading  trace,  similar  to 
that  of  the  shelter  trench  in  Fig.  76,  p.  204,  should 
have  been  adopted. 

The  communication  trenches  were  continued  to  the 
rear,  and  at  the  first  bend  beyond  the  shelter  trench 
were  located  the  dressing  stations,  also  of  splinter 
proof  construction.  (Fig.  94.)  A  table,  bench  and 
shelf  were  the  requisite  furnishings,  arranged  as 
shown. 


226 


PREPAREDNESS   AND    THE   ENGINEER 


Further  to  the  rear  was  the  bomb  proof,  designed 
to  accommodate  the  entire  garrison  of  the  trench  dur- 
ing a  bombardment  by  high  explosive  shell.  The 
cover  comprised  six  feet  of  earth,  carried  by  two 
criss-crossed  layers  of  6"  x  &'  timbers.     Owing  to 


N  FIG.    94.      DRESSING   STATION 


the  shortage  of  lumber,  this  structure  could  not  be 
completed  as  designed. 

About  150  yards  in  rear  of  the  fire  trenches  were 
the  cover  trenches,  (Fig.  29,  p.  99.)  These  trenches 
were  for  the  housing  of  the  troops  in  reserve,  and 
in  practice  would  contain  latrines,  facilities  for  sleep- 
ing and  cooking,  and  would  be  designed  for  continu- 
ous occupancy. 

Between  the  sections  of  the  firing  trenches,  at  S, 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS — ^ADDENDA 


227 


and  reached  by  covered  passages  from  these  trenches, 
were  the  observation  stations,  open  and  covered.  The 
former  is  shown  in  front  and  rear  by  Fig.  95.  Note 
the  trench  periscope.  The  other  station  (not  shown) 
was  of  the  monitor  type,  with  splinter  proof  over- 
head cover  and  narrow  horizontal  observation  slots. 
Successive  Lines  of  Defense.     The  plan  as  shown, 


Front.  Eear. 

FIG.    95.      OPEN   OBSERVATION   STATION 


with  a  depth  from  front  to  rear  of  100  to  500  yards, 
depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  ground,  would  con- 
stitute the  first  line.  The  variations  of  arrangement 
are  countless.  We  have  seen  that  the  shelter  trench 
may  be  advanced  nearly  to  the  fire  trench  or  con- 
solidated with  it.  Dressing  stations,  latrines,  bomb 
proofs,  etc.,  may  be  connected  by  trenches  parallel 
to  the  front,  to  facilitate  lateral  communication. 
These  trenches  may  even  be  designed  for  frontal  fire 
by  the  supports  if  the  fire  trenches  are  taken. 
The   ''First   line,''   therefore,    consists   of  several 


228  PREPAREDNESS   AND    THE   ENGINEER 

parallel  rows  of  trenches,  with  one  or  more  lines  of 
resistance.  It  must  be  clearly  understood,  however, 
that  these  auxiliary  lines  are  not  to  be  considered  as 
rallying  points  for  troops  driven  from  the  fire 
trenches.  These  troops,  if  they  have  held  their  posi- 
tion until  the  last,  are  disorganized  and  beaten,  and 
the  enemy  is  usually  following  too  closely  upon  their 
heels  to  permit  their  halting  and  reorganizing  for 
another  stand.  The  proper  garrison  for  these  trenches 
is  the  reserve,  which,  sheltered  in  the  cover  trenches, 
has  not  so  far  been  engaged  and  is  intact  as  to  or- 
ganization and  practically  so  as  to  numbers. 

Similarly,  the  second  line  and  the  third  line,  each 
developed  substantially  as  explained  for  the  first  line, 
have  their  own  garrison,  and  do  not  depend  for  de- 
fense upon  such  stragglers  and  fugitives  as  may  drift 
back  from  a  captured  first  line.  Each  line  must  suc- 
cessively stand  or  fall  by  its  own  efforts,  and  if  after 
a  stubborn  resistance  the  position  is  carried,  the  op- 
portunities for  a  concerted  falling  back  to  a  previ- 
ously prepared  line  are  small  indeed.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  defeated  troops  usually  face  annihilation 
or  capture. 

SUPPORTING  POINTS 

In  laying  out  a  defensive  line,  there  will  be  found 
certain  points  of  greater  natural  strength  than  the 
general  line,  and  therefore  capable  of  a  more  stubr 
born  defense  and  of  more  highly  developed  defensive 
works. 

The  natural  strength  of  such  points  should  be  fully 
developed,  to  afford  a  more  prolonged  resistance,  to 
break  up  attacks  which  may  penetrate  the  line  of 
trenches  or  to  prevent  the  enemy's  widening  such  a 
breach  by  rolling  up  the  line  from  the  flank. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  frontal  fire  from  such  a 
position  can  be  of  no  greater  volume  nor  more  effee- 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS — ADDENDA  229 

tive  than  from  a  line  of  trenches  occupying  the  same 
front.  The  natural  strength,  therefore,  cannot  be 
completely  developed,  except  perhaps  passively,  in 
the  way  of  better  protection  to  the  defenders,  unless 
the  work  be  designed  to  hold  out  after  the  general  line 
has  broken  and  to  check  the  spread  of  such  a  break. 
To  accomplish  this,  facilities  for  all  around  fire  must 
be  provided. 

Concealment  in  such  a  work  is  of  vital  importance, 
or  at  least  sufficient  disguising  to  give  it  the  same  ap- 
pearance as  the  general  line  of  trenches.  Otherwise 
the  position  will  be  thoroughly  demolished  by  a  bom- 
bardment with  high  explosive  shell  before  the  attack. 
The  enemy  may  not  be. willing  to  expend  the  shell 
to  destroy  a  mere  line  of  firing  trench,  but  will  most 
certainly  do  so  upon  the  opportunity  of  eliminating 
a  possible  obstacle  to  his  pushing  home  an  attack. 

Location,  Supporting  points  may  be  located  in 
rear  of  the  first  line  of  firing  trench,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  opposing  a  stubborn  resistance  to  and  break- 
ing up  an  attack  which  has  already  passed  the  first 
line,  or  their  front  trenches  may  be  a  part  of  the  gen- 
eral line  and  ordinarily  perform  the  same  service. 
In  the  latter  case  they  are  usually  designated  as 
strong  points ,  are  greater  value  in  flanking  adjacent 
lines,  and  their  garrisons  hold  their  portion  of  the 
front,  instead  of  being  immobilized  in  the  rear,  useless 
except  for  one  emergency,  which  may  never  arise. 

"When  opposing  trenches  are  very  close,  however,  as 
on  the  western  front  in  Europe,  where  a  sudden  at- 
tack is  liable  to  gain  a  foothold  in  the  front  line,  and 
where  a  partial  success  must  be  prevented  at  all  odds 
from  spreading,  the  favored  position  appears  to  be 
in  the  rear.  "With  the  numbers  of  troops  available, 
the  garrisoning  of  these  points  does  not  drain  the 
front  line,  and  the  works  themselves,  when  so  located, 
are  removed  from  the  danger  of  attack  by  mining. 


230  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

Their  concealment  is  also  more  easily  effected  than 
when  a  part  of  the  first  line.  In  such  a  location  a 
supporting  point  is  an  emergency  device  purely,  to 
be  kept  carefully  under  cover  until  the  last  moment, 
when  it  will  suddenly  burst  into  fire.  Any  form  of 
construction  or  any  activity  which  will  tend  to  be- 
tray its  position  or  its  identity  should  be  absolutely 
suppressed. 

Trace,  The  trace  may  vary  to  suit  the  ground  and 
the  purposes  for  which  the  work  is  intended,  pro- 
vided that  an  all  around  defense  is  secured.  A  cir- 
cular or.  elliptical  trace  is  usually  objectionable  on  ac- 
count of  the  radial  dispersion  of  fire.  If  the  trace  is 
formed  of  straight  lines,  the  angles  of  junction  should 
not  be  sharper  than  120°,  as  the  greatest  angle  from 
the  perpendicular  at  which  a  rifleman  can  conven- 
iently fire  is  45°  to  the  left  and  15°  to  the  right. 
If  the  interior  angle,  I,  Fig.  96,  at  the  intersection 
is  less  than  120°,  there  will  be  a  dead  angle  of  fire, 
d,  at  the  exterior  corner.  However,  if  a  machine 
gun  is  to  occupy  the  corner,  the  angle  may  be  made 
as  sharp  as  desired. 

On  a  hillside,  the  flanks  may  be  groups  of  trenches 
in  echelon,  as  in  Fig.  15  (b),  p.  86,  faced  nearly  or 
fully  to  the  front,  thus  avoiding  a  conspicuous  di- 
agonal trench  cutting  across  the  face  of  the  slope, 
and  at  the  same  time  preserving  to  these  trenches 
their  frontal  fire,  in  addition  to  a  considerable  angle 
of  fire  to  the  flank.  On  the  right  this  angle  of  fire 
to  the  flank  is  only  about  15°,  so  these  trenches  may 
have  to  be  faced  more  to  the  flank  than  on  the  left. 
The  rear  may  be  closed  by  a  simple  standing  trench 
with  a  passageway,  provided  with  splinter  proof  cover 
under  the  parados,  i.  e.,  on  the  side  towards  the 
enemy's  artillery. 

It  has  been  argued  by  some  authorities  that  the 
work  should  be  left  open  in  the  rear,  as  it  can  then 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS — ADDENDA 


231 


be  more  easily  rendered  untenable  to  an  enemy  who 
may  succeed  in  capturing  it  and  who  would  other- 
wise find  himself  provided  with  the  means  of  re- 
sisting a  counter  attack.  These  flank  and  rear 
trenches,  however,  are  intended  for  use  by  the  de- 
fense only  in  case  the  enemy  breaks  through  the  ad- 


FIG.  96.   DEAD  ANGLE  AT  CORNER  OF  TRENCH. 

joining  line  of  trenches  and  partially  or  completely 
surrounds  the  supporting  point.  In  such  a  case  his 
own  artillery  can  no  longer  fire,  so  these  trenches  will 
meet  only  an  infantry  attack.  During  the  prelimi- 
nary artillery  bombardment  they  will  be  for  the  greater 
part  unoccupied.  If,  therefore,  the  enemy  should 
take  the  position,  he  will  immediately  be  deluged  with 
shrapnel  from  the  defending  artillery,  and  will  be 
forced  to  withstand  this  fire  in  trenches  not  designed 


232  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

to  resist  it.  Even  the  splinter  and  bomb  proofs,  with 
their  openings  facing  the  rear,  will  afford  him  no  pro- 
tection. It  must  also  be  remembered  that  these  same 
trenches  which  it  is  feared  will  enable  him  to  hold  the 
work  against  counter  attacks  may  enable  the  original 
garrison  to  oppose  a  stouter  resistance  to  his  attack, 
and  possibly  prevent  his  ever  obtaining  a  foothold 
from  which  he  must  be  ejected.  It  is  poor  policy 
to  design  a  defensive  point  with  the  expectation  that 
it  will  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  and  to  pur- 
posely weaken  it  in  order  to  facilitate  its  recapture. 

Construction.  The  depth  of  a  supporting  point,  as 
well  as  its  front,  should  be  such  as  to  best  fit  the 
ground  it  occupies.  As  a  general  rule,  the  rear 
trench  should  be  at  such  a  distance  from  the  front 
that  artillery  projectiles  aimed  at  one  will  not  en- 
danger the  other.  The  more  accurate  the  fire,  the 
less  will  be  this  distance,  and  if  not  accurate,  then 
there  will  be  little  concentration  and  its  effect  will 
be  considerably  reduced.  About  fifty  yards  was  for- 
merly considered  a  safe  distance,  but  with  the  im- 
proved accuracy  of  fire  shown  in  the  present  war,  it 
is  believed  that  this  may  be  reduced  to  thirty.  The 
garrison,  including  supports,  will  usually  be  about 
one  company  to  a  battalion  of  infantry. 

Obstacles  about  a  supporting  point  should  be  con- 
tinuous, and  should  be  concealed  in  folds  of  the 
ground,  in  brush  or  tall  grass,  or  in  other  ways  ren- 
dered as  inconspicuous  as  possible,  in  order  not  to 
betray  the  location  of  the  position.  They  must  at 
every  point  be  under  fire  from  the  trenches.  En- 
trances are  preferably  on  the  sides,  to  avoid  enfilade 
by  fire  from  the  front,  and  should  be  covered.  In- 
terior communications  should  be  ample  and  safe, 
since  it  may  be  necessary  to  shift  the  garrison  to  vari- 
ous points  of  the  work  under  fire. 

The  general  principles  of  trench  construction  apply 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS — ADDENDA  233 

to  the  actual  firing  points.  The  trenches  are  not  li- 
able to  be  rushed,  so  that  any  additional  protection 
which  may  be  afforded  by  head  or  overhead  cover  is 
permissible  if  not  opposed  to  good  concealment.  It 
has  been  recommended  that  head  cover  be  provided 
by  means  of  sand  bags,  kept  filled  in  the  trenches  to 
avoid  visibility,  and  placed  upon  the  parapet  by  the 
defenders  when  firing  is  to  commence. 

Auxiliary  Structures.  Bomb  proof  cover,  to  re- 
sist heavy  artillery  fire,  must  be  provided  for  the  de- 
fense. In  locating  the  bomb  proofs,  full  advantage 
must  be  taken  of  all  ground  forms  which  tend  to  re- 
duce construction,  as  more  labor  will  be  required  upon 
this  than  upon  any  other  feature  of  the  work.  Also, 
if  located  entirely  in  excavation,  there  will  be  a  large 
amount  of  earth  to  waste,  all  of  which  must  be  placed 
where  it  is  not  visible  to  the  enemy.  To  minimize  the 
consequences  of  a  chance  hit  by  a  large  shell,  bomb 
proof  cover  may  be  distributed  among  several  shel- 
ters. 

Machine  gun  emplacements  should  be  built  at  all 
points  from  which  their  fire  may  sweep  the  adjoin- 
ing trenches,  the  entanglements,  or  the  front  and 
flanks  of  the  supporting  point  itself.  They  are  pref- 
erably of  the  type  for  flank  fire  only,  and  provided 
with  overhead  cover,  if  this  can  be  made  inconspicu- 
ous. The  guns  will  be  moved  from  one  emplace- 
ment to  the  other  to  meet  varying  phases  of  the 
fire  fight. 

Observation  stations  will  be  located  at  favorable 
points,  concealed  by  vegetation,  and  provided  with 
hidden  communications.  They  should  be  inside  the 
obstacles,  and  may  be  occupied  in  turn  as  the  action 
can  thus  be  brought  under  better  observation.  Fi- 
nally, the  commanding  officer  is  provided  with  a  sta- 
tion, equipped  with  overhead  cover  and  so  located 
as  to  permit  as  complete  a  view  as  possible  of  the 


234  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

entire  terrain  controlled  by  the  work.  He  must  watch 
his  own  front  and  flanks,  neighboring  trenches  and 
obstacles,  and  the  enemy 's  front,  in  order  that  he  may 
dispose  his  garrison  and  machine  guns  to  the  best 
advantage  to  meet  conditions  as  they  arise. 


XV.       ^ 
WIRE  ENTANGLEMENTS. 

By  common  consent  the  high  wire  entanglement  has 
become  the  standard  military  obstacle.  It  has  been 
highly  developed  on  the  western  front  in  Europe, 
and  a  number  of  notes  upon  its  use  under  service 
conditions  are  now  available. 

The  principal  developments  have  been  along  the 
line  of  simplifying  the  construction  and  in  the  use  of 
artillery  fire  to  open  a  passage  for  the  attacking 
troops.  It  was  known  formerly  that  a  direct  hit  by 
high  explosive  shell  would  cut  the  wires  in  its  path, 
but  it  was  not  considered  that  artillery  fire  in  gen- 
eral would  have  much  of  an  effect  upon  entangle- 
ments. This  view  was  influenced  by  the  belief  that 
such  shell  would  never  be  available  in  sufficient  quan- 
tities to  permit  its  use  for  the  destruction  of  wire 
entanglements.  The  development,  therefore,  lies  more 
in  the  quantities  of  shell  which  it  is  considered  advis- 
able to  expend  for  this  purpose  than  in  the  discovery 
of  the  effect  of  such  fire. 

General  Principles  Governing  Location,  As  a  gen- 
eral rule,  the  outer  edge  of  an  entanglement  should 
not  be  near  enough  to  the  trench  which  it  protects  to 
allow  the  throwing  of  hand  grenades  into  the  latter. 
At  the  same  time,  the  distance  must  not  be  too  great ' 
for  adequate  watching  or  guarding  by  the  defense. 
Furthermore,  it  must  not  be  so  great  that  the  enemy 
may  approach  and  cut  through  it  while  the  trench 
is  under  their  artillery  fire.  These  restrictions 
usually  fix  the  distance  at  from  fifty  to  one  hundred 
yards.     It  is  better,  however,  to  make  this  distance 

235 


236  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

irregular,  so  that  the  entanglement  will  not  be  parallel 
to  the  trace  of  the  trench.  This  will  lessen  the  lia- 
bility of  the  trenches  being  discovered  through  the 
position  of  the  obstacle,  and  will  prevent  hostile  ar- 
tillery from  using  the  latter  in  ranging  their  fire 
upon  the  trench. 

The  wire  available  should  be  so  disposed  as  to 
form  a  deep  rather  than  a  dense  obstacle.  The  time 
of  cutting  through  is  thus  increased,  and  a  greater 
amount  of  shells  will  be  required  for  its  destruction 
by  artillery  fire.  The  depth  should  not  be  less  than 
thirty  feet. 

A  double  line,  separated  by  an  open  space,  is  con- 
sidered advisable  as  offering  to  the  artillery  a  target 
of  greater  dispersion,  and  as  tending  to  stiffen  the 
defense.  A  determined  attack  upon  an  entanglement 
is  certain  to  affect  the  morale  of  defending  troops. 
As  the  barrier  between  them  and  the  enemy  is  gradu- 
ally cut  away,  their  fire  becomes  less  and  less  effec- 
tive, and  the  tendency  is  strong  to  evacuate  the 
trenches  before  the  enemy  can  come  to  grips.  If  a 
second  obstacle,  even  a  single  fence,  will  still  be  in- 
terposed after  the  main  entanglement  is  cut  through, 
the  defenders  will  be  steadier  and  fire  with  better 
effect,  which  should  prevent  the  attack's  ever  reach- 
ing the  second  barrier. 

Types.  Most  of  the  entanglements  placed  on  the 
western  front  in  Europe  are  constructed  at  night,  in 
the  face  of  the  enemy,  and  great  care  must  be  exer- 
cised not  to  draw  his  fire  upon  the  working  parties 
by  undue  noise.  At  the  same  time,  the  construction 
must  follow  simple  forms,  in  order  that  the  opera- 
tions may  proceed  in  the  dark  without  confusion. 
The  form  shown  in  Fig.  33,  p.  109,  although  a  very 
effective  obstacle,  is  not  suitable  in  such  a  case,  on 
account  of  the  noise  of  driving  its  posts  and  of  its 
comDlicated  wiring.     The  approved  types  follow  the 


WIRE   ENTANGLEMENTS  237 

plans  of  Figs.  97  and  98,  comprising  as  few  long  posts 
as  possible,  supporting  a  structure  consisting  mainly 
of  longitudinal  wires.  Fig.  97  is  a  simple  wire  fence, 
with  a  front  and  rear  apron.  The  complete  obstacle 
consists  of  two  or  more  of  these  units,  separated  by 
open  spaces.  Fig.  98  is  a  double  fence,  with  front  and 
rear  aprons, 


FIG.    97.      DOUBLE    APRON  ENTANGLEMENT. 

cross  wired  between.  This  might  well  form  the  prin- 
cipal obstacle,  with  the  addition  of  a  strong  fence  in 
rear.  Fig.  97  requires,  per  yard  of  front,  for  a  dou- 
ble line,  34  yards  of  wire,  and  Fig.  98,  with  a  guyed 
fence  in  rear,  requires  38  yards.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that  for  the  complete  wiring  of  a  mile  of 
front,  1st,  2nd  and  3rd  lines,  with  supporting  points 
and  all  auxiliaries,  there  will  be  required  about  900 
miles  of  wire. 

For  the  rapid  construction  of  such  entanglements, 


238  PREPAREDNESS   AND    THE   ENGINEER 

the  materials  are  assembled  in  the  rear  and  regular 
drills  are  held  in  which  each  man  learns  thoroughly 
the  duties  which  he  is  to  perform.  The  materials 
are  as  follows: 

Wire,  The  quantity  of  wire  required  is  so  great 
that  it  must  be  obtained  from  all  possible  sources 
and  will  be  of  all  possible  types.     A  special  wire 


FIG.    yo.      DOUBLE   FENCE   ENTANGLEMENT. 


(Fig.  99),  containing  four  one-inch  prongs  to  the 
inch,  has  been  used  in  large  quantities,  but  commercial 
barbed  wire  is  usually  much  easier  to  procure,  and 
even  this  may  be  so  scarce  as  to  require  the  use  of 
any  available  wire.  Where  both  are  to  be  used  in 
one  entanglement,  the  smooth  wire  is  used  for  stays 
and  tie  wires,  the  barbed  for  longitudinals.  A  reel 
of  wire  is  prepared  for  use  by  loosening  and  unwind- 
ing the  end   for  one  turn,  wrapping  the  coil  with 


WIRE   ENTANGLEMENTS 


239 


canvas,   and  rewinding  the  loose   end   over  this,   so 
that  it  may  be  found  in  the  dark. 

Standards  or  Posts.  If  of  wood  these  must  be  of 
considerable  strength,  and  therefore  difficult  to  set. 
The  standards  in  most  common  use  are  of  two  kinds, 
angle  irons,  with  notches  to  hold  the  wire,  and  a 


FIG.    99.      SPECIAL   ENTANGLEMENT   WIRE. 


specially  prepared  type  of  iron  post,  with  three  or 
four  eyes  and  a  screw  end,  so  that  it  may  be  screwed 
into  the  ground.  (Fig.  100.)  The  pickets,  for  hold- 
ing trip  wires  and  the  lower  ends  of  the  stays,  are 
about  fifteen  inches  long,  with  one  eye  at  the  top. 
Angle  iron  posts  and  pickets  are  driven  by  mauls 
whose  heads  are  muffled  by  eight  to  ten  thicknesses  of 
sand  bag. 


240 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


The  wire  is  attached  by  (a)  looping  it  over  the  posts 
and  through  the  open  eyes,  (b)  simply  laying  it  in 
the  eyes,  (c)  laying  it  loosely  in  the  eyes  and  giving 
the  post  a  twist  after  all  wires  are  in  place,  or  (d) 
laying  the  wires  in  the  eyes  and  securing  them  by 
separate  binding  wires.  Method  (c)  is  not  applicable 
to  angle  iron  posts.  Method  (b)  is  objectionable  be- 
cause a  single  cut  in  a  wire  slackens  it  throughout 


.i a  )^—^     Petal  I  at  'a*      Detail  at  'c 


§ 


5cr€)V  Fost     P/cAef- 


Detail  at  'd' 

/Jn^/e    Sy^  Screw 

Posts. 

FIG.   100.      SPECIAL  ENTANGLEMENT  POSTS. 


its  length.  The  eyes,  or  some  form  of  notch,  are 
essential,  as  otherwise  the  entanglement  might  be 
flattened  by  slipping  the  wires  down  the  posts  to  the 
ground.  With  wooden  posts  the  notches  must  be 
cut  beforehand,  or  the  wire  fastened  with  staples, 
the  driving  of  which  would  certainly  draw  the  en- 
emy ^s  fire. 

In  preparing  to  erect  entanglements  at  night,  the 
posts  are  made  up  into  bundles  of  a  convenient  size  to 
carry,  wrapped  in  sand  bags  and  tied  firmly  with 


WIRE  ENTANGLEMENTS  241 

wire,  to  prevent  their  rattling.  The  pickets  are 
usually  carried  in  sand  bags,  similar  precautions  be- 
ing taken  against  noise. 

Construction,  Having  been  prepared  by  drills  in 
the  rear,  until  each  man  knows  exactly  his  duties, 
the  working  party  proceeds  to  the  front  with  the  ma- 
terial, locates  itself  on  the  ground,  and  works  rapidly 
and  noiselessly.  Each  party  constructs  a  length  of 
about  fifty  yards,  and  gaps  are  left  between  the  units 
for  patrols,  counter  attacks,  etc.  These  openings  are 
zig-zag  or  diagonal  to  the  front,  so  that  they  are  not 
apparent  to  the  enemy.  In  defense  they  are  swept 
by  specially  designated  machine  guns.  Their  loca- 
tion is  concealed  from  the  enemy,  not  alone  to  prevent 
his  entrance  thereby,  but  to  avoid  his  making  similar 
dispositions  to  sweep  them  by  machine  gun  fire  during 
a  sortie  by  the  defense. 

The  line  upon  which  posts  are  to  be  driven  may 
be  laid  out  on  the  ground  by  tape,  spaced  off  by 
pieces  of  cloth  knotted  into  it,  but  usually  such  re- 
finement is  unnecessary.  In  fact,  the  more  irregular 
the  plan  and  profile  of  an  entanglement,  the  more 
difficult  it  is  to  penetrate.  The  distance  from  the 
trench  may  be  fixed  by  pacing,  and  an  electric  flash, 
shaded  from  the  enemy,  provides  a  ranging  point 
towards  which  the  men  distributing  the  posts 
may  work.  The  side  posts  and  pickets  are  placed 
by  estimation,  opposite  the  intervals  in  the  center 
line  of  posts  and  at  about  the  desired  distance  from 
them. 

The  following  is  a  specimen  drill  for  the  con- 
struction of  an  entanglement  of  the  type  shown  in 
Fig.  97.  The  working  party  consists  of  twelve  men, 
Nos.  1  to  6,  front  and  rear  rank,  with  the  necessary 
non-commissioned  officers.  The  men  wrap  their  legs, 
waists  and  forearms  with  several  thicknesses  of  sand 
bags,  and  wear  heavy  gloves,  which  may  be  padded 


242  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

or  studded  with  rivets.     The  work  is  divided  into 
three  successive  duties  for  each  man. 

FIRST   DUTY. 

No.  1.     Lay  out  posts  along  line. 
No.  2.     Front  rank — assists  No.  1. 

Eear  rank — holds  posts  for  No.  3  to  screw 
in. 
No.  3.     Separately — screw  in  posts. 
No.  4.     Lay  out  front  and  rear  pickets  on  line. 
No.  5.     Screw  in  front  line  of  pickets. 
No.  6.     Screw  in  rear  line  of  pickets. 

SECOND   DUTY. 

No.  1.  Lower  wire  of  fence. 

No.  2.  Second  wire  of  fence. 

No.  3.  Third  wire  of  fence. 

No.  4.  Top  wire  of  fence. 

No.  5.  Erect  stays  to  front  pickets. 

No.  6.  Erect  stays  to  rear  pickets. 

»  THIRD  DUTY. 

No.  1.  Top  wire  on  front  apron. 

No.  2.  Second  wire  on  front  apron. 

No.  3.  Lower  wire  on  front  apron. 

No.  4.  Top  wire  on  rear  apron. 

No.  5.  Second  wire  on  rear  apron. 

No.  6.  Lower  wire  on  rear  apron. 

The  end  posts  of  a  unit  are  stayed  longitudinally, 
these  stays  being  placed  by  the  men  who  string 
the  top  wire  on  the  posts.  The  front  and  rear  stays 
are  given  a  kink  where  the  apron  wires  rest  upon 
them,  to  prevent  the  latter 's  slipping  down.  The 
joint  is  made  fast  by  binders  of  plain  wire. 

Portable  Entanglements.  The  necessity  of  rapid 
and  noiseless  construction  has  led  to  the  performance 


WIRE   ENTANGLEMENTS  243 

of  as  much  of  the  work  as  possible  in  rear  of  the  line, 
and  has  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  several  portable 
entanglements.  Of  these  there  are  two  principal 
types,  first,  those  whose  frames  are  constructed  in  the 
rear,  carried  out  in  front  and  wired  in  position,  and 
second,  those  which  are  built  in  complete  units,  wire 
and  all,  and  placed  in  position  in  front  of  the 
trenches.  In  the  former  type,  the  frames,  pyramidal, 
X,  or  star  shaped,  simply  take  the  place  of  posts, 
and  thus  avoid  the  noise  of  driving.  The  latter  type 
is  used  to  blockade  roads,  to  quickly  provide  an 
obstacle  in  front  of  a  newly  captured  position  and 
where  construction  operations  in  place  are  not  pos- 
sible. They  may  take  a  number  of  forms,  of  which 
the  mre  chevaux  de  frise  and  the  French  spiral  or 
French  wire  are  in  most  common  use.  The  former 
consists  of  a  number  of  X-frames  attached  to  a 
longitudinal  axis  and  the  whole  covered  with  barbed 
wire.  Its  efficiency  as  an  obstacle  is  not  effected  by 
upsetting  it  or  rolling  it  over.  The  latter  consists  of 
a  double  coil  of  wire,  wound  in  opposite  directions, 
and  fastened  together  at  a  number  of  points  upon 
their  circumferences.  The  spiral  is  collapsed  for 
transporting,  and  the  ends  pulled  apart  to  place  it. 
A  double  spiral,  about  four  feet  in  diameter,  is  thus 
formed,  which  is  pegged  to  the  ground  at  several 
points.  It  is  said  to  resist  artillery  fire  very  success- 
fully. 

Protection  of  Entanglements,  Entanglements  once 
placed  must  be  carefully  guarded  against  night  at- 
tacks. This  is  done  by  automatic  signals,  illuminat- 
ing devices  and  advanced  sentry  posts.  The  first  two 
may  be  combined  in  the  flare,  of  which  there  are  a 
number  of  types  displaying  considerable  ingenuity  in 
their  construction. 

Flare.  An  automatic  flare  of  a  type  in  general  use 
by  the  British  in  France  is  shown  in  Fig.  101.     The 


244 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


standard  is  hinged  to  a  stout  post,  and  normally  lies 
horizontally  in  a  shallow  trench.  When  the  support- 
ing prop  is  removed  by  a  pull  on  the  trip-wire  the 
weighted  end  drops  into  the  pit,  pivoting  about  the 
hinge,  and  raising  the  other  end  four  or  five  feet 
above  the  ground  surface.  This  end  carries  a  flare, 
similar  to  a  Cosion  Signal,  behind  which  is  a  tin  re- 


R^f/ecfor 


FIG.    101.      AUTOMATIC   FLARE. 


flector  to  shade  the  defenders'  trenches.  The  flare 
is  ignited  by  an  instantaneous  fuse,  inserted  in  a 
cartridge  shell  C,  the  firing  pin  of  which  is  struck 
by  the  falling  weight  W. 

Or,  the  fuse  may  be  ignited  by  a  Bickford  fuse 
lighter,  which  is  a  pasteboard  tube  containing  a 
friction  primer.  One  end  is  open  for  the  insertion  of 
the  fuse,  the  other  contains  a  wire  loop,  the  forcible 
withdrawal  of  which  ignites  the  primer.  This  is  at- 
tached at  E,  Fig.  101,  so  that  the  falling  weight,  W, 


WIRE   ENTANGLEMENTS  245 

draws  out  the  wire  and  lights  the  instantaneous  fuse 
leading  to  the  flare. 

As  the  enemy  may  carefully  cut  all  trip  wires  as 
encountered,  the  signal  is  sometimes  arranged  to  trip 
either  upon  a  pull  or  a  slackening  of  the  actuating 
wire.  This  is  done  by  means  of  a  second  cord  at- 
tached to  the  prop  P,  Fig.  101,  leading  away  from 
the  trip  wire,  over  a  small  pulley  in  the  side  of  the 
pit,  and  carrying  a  weight.  This  weight  is  sup- 
ported, and  the  prop  thus  kept  in  position,  by  the 
tension  in  the  trip  wire,  which,  when  cut,  will  allow 
the  weight  to  drop,  withdrawing  the  prop  as  before. 
A  pull  on  the  alarm  wire  lifts  the  weight  sufficiently 
to  displace  the  prop  towards  the  pull. 

These  flares  burn  with  an  intense  light  for  about 
one  minute,  which  is  usually  sufficient  time  to  break 
up  a  wire  cutting  party.  The  alarm  once  given, 
however,  the  illumination  may  be  continued  by  firing 
star  shells  from  extemporized  gas  pipe  mortars.  These 
shells,  upon  bursting,  release  a  burning  ball  of  pow- 
der, supported  by  a  small  parachute,  which  drifts 
with  the  wind  and  lights  up  the  ground  below  for 
about  a  minute. 

Advanced  Sentry  Posts,  Such  posts  are  a  develop- 
ment of  the  night  sentry  posts  shown  in  Fig.  14,  p. 
86.  They  are  carried  up  into  the  midst  of  the  en- 
tanglements, are  provided  with  overhead  cover  if  con- 
sistent with  concealment  and  a  clear  field  of  view, 
and  may  accommodate  several  men.  They  are  pro- 
tected from  the  fire  of  their  own  lines,  and  provided 
with  telephones  or  other  reliable  means  of  communi- 
cation. In  some  cases,  the  occupants,  after  giving 
the  alarm  of  an  attack,  rejoin  their  own  forces,  clos- 
ing the  passage  after  them.  In  others  they  retreat 
into  their  dugouts  and  lie  hidden  during  the  attack. 

The  functions  of  these  posts  are  three  fold.  They 
watch  the  entanglements  and  give  warning  of  an  at- 


246 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


tack,  they  listen  for  sounds  of  the  enemy's  subter- 
ranean mines  and,  provided  they  possess  good  cover, 
they  are  capable  of  strong  resistance  and  may  delay 
an  attack  while  the  main  defense  is  organizing  to 
receive  it. 

For  directing  night  fire  upon  any  previously  desig- 
nated objective,  the  simplest  comprises  a  couple  of 


FIG.  102.      GUIDES  FOR  NIGHT  FIRING. 


notched  boards  placed  upon  the  parapet.  (Fig.  102.) 
The  front  board  is  first  set  in  place  and  nailed  to 
stakes.  Then  the  rear  board  is  set  with  the  rifle  laid 
across  both  boards  so  as  to  secure  the  proper  eleva- 
tion. The  rifle  is  then  carefully  aimed  at  the  objective 
and  the  notches  marked.  When  these  are  cut  to  the 
same  depth  in  both  boards,  the  rifle,  placed  in  the 
notches,  will  have  the  desired  direction  and  elevation. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

ORGANIZATION    OF    CAPTURED    POSITIONS. 

An  attack  upon  the  western  front  in  Europe  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  Engineers  to  make  the  neces- 
sary preparations  and  to  assist  in  holding  positions 
that  may  be  carried  by  assault. 

PRELIMINARY    WORK. 

Before  the  exact  point  of  attack  can  be  fixed  there 
must  be  reconnaissance,  both  from  the  air  and  from 
advanced  points.  Observation  from  the  latter  is  also 
very  essential  to  an  intelligent  direction  of  the  ar- 
tillery fire  which  prepares  the  way  for  the  infantry 
assault. 

Sapping. 

The  construction  of  advanced  observing  posts,  and 
of  covered  approaches  leading  out  to  them,  follows 
the  methods  of  sapping,  as  given  in  Chapter  X. 

The  stations  themselves  are  usually  built  under  the 
cover  of  some  feature  which  has  been  in  existence 
for  some  time  and  to  the  sight  of  which  the  enemy 
has  become  accustomed,  such  as  a  ruined  building, 
a  hedge,  clump  of  brush,  etc. 

The  cover  is  made  as  strong  as  possible  consistent 
with  clear  observation  and  concealment  from  the 
enemy,  and  every  care  is  taken  to  prevent- betrayal 
of  the  position  by  the  approaches  leading  to  it. 

In  driving  the  sap,  therefore,  it  is  customary  to 
carry  all  earth  to  the  rear,  as  it  would  be  very  con- 
spicuous if  thrown  up,  as  in  Fig.  37,  p.  117.     The 

247 


248  PREPAREDNESS   AND    THE   ENGINEER 

important  points  to  conceal  are  the  point  of  departure 
of  the  sap  from  the  trench  and  the  sap  head  while 
work  is  in  progress.  At  night  a  section  of  the  trench 
parapet  may  be  removed  and  a  layer  of  plank  placed 
flat  upon  the  ground  for  the '  entire  width  of  the 
parapet,  which  is  then  rebuilt  upon  the  planks.  The 
sap  is  now  started  by  tunnelling  under  these  boards, 
and  proceeds  by  full  depth  excavation,  undermining 
the  earth  ahead  and  letting  it  drop  into  the  sap. 

Progress  is  naturally  slow,  as  only  one  man  at  a 
time  can  work  in  the  sap  head.  From  li^  to  2  feet 
per  hour  is  a  very  good  rate. 

Saps  are  continually  being  driven  out  towards  the 
enemy,  to  listening  posts,  to  advanced  posts  for  the 
protection  of  obstacles,  and  in  the  process  of  advanc- 
ing a  section  of  the  firing  line  to  a  better  position. 

In  many  cases  concealment  is  impossible,  and  ar- 
tificial cover,  such  as  sandbags  and  steel  shields  (Fig. 
88,  p.  215),  is  freely  used  to  protect  the  working 
parties.  Much  of  the  work  is  necessarily  done  at 
night,  and  a  long  sap  may  be  rapidly  constructed 
by  placing  men  in  pairs  on  the  line  at  intervals 
of  20  to  30  feet.  The  men  in  these  pairs  first 
excavate  a  narrow  trench,  just  long  enough  to  permit 
the  free  use  of  their  entrenching  tools.  "When  a  suf- 
ficient depth  is  attained,  they  begin  to  work  away 
from  one  another,  towards  the  next  pit.  This  work  of 
connecting  the  line  of  pits  may  continue  after  day- 
break. 

Mining, 

An  attack  stands  a  much  better  chance  of  suc- 
ceeding if  the  enemy  is  thrown  into  confusion  just 
previous  to  the  assault  by  the  explosion  of  a  mine 
under  his  works. 

Mining  proceeds  as  oulined  in  Chapter  X,  the  work 
being  usually  done  by  special  Engineer  troops,  re- 


ORGANIZATION  OF   CAPTURED   POSITIONS  249 

cruited  from  men  who  have  followed  mining  as  a 
profession  in  civil  life. 

Mine  galleries  on  the  British  front  are  customarily 
of  a  trapezoidal  section,  4  feet  high,  2i/^  feet  wide 
at  the  top  and  3  feet  at  the  bottom.  They  are  usually 
full  timbered  throughout.  The  excavated  earth  is 
most  silently  removed  by  placing  it  in  sandbags  and 
hauling  it  out.  To  accomplish  this  a  continuous  rope 
should  be  used,  reeved  through  blocks  in  the  heading 
and  around  the  drum  of  a  winch  at  the  entrance  of 
the  gallery.  Otherwise  it  would  be  necessary  to  con- 
stantly carry  the  end  of  the  rope  back  into  the  head- 
ing. 

The  sand  bags,  instead  of  being  emptied,  are  used 
in  the  trenches,  in  accordance  with  the  maxim  of 
efficiency — '^When  sand  bags  are  to  be  filled,  look 
for  the  nearest  excavation  in  progress,  and  fill  them 
there. ' '  In  average  soil,  the  rate  of  progress  is  %  to 
1  foot  per  hour,  necessitating  the  removal  of  12  to 
24  sandbags  in  this  time. 

Mine  galleries  have  been  successfully  driven  to  a 
length  of  nearly  150  yards,  requiring  several  weeks 
to  complete  them.  It  is  reported  that  in  the  recent 
British  offensive  at  Ypres,  in  Belgium,  mines  were 
fired  which  had  been  completed  a  year  previously, 
and  held  awaiting  a  favorable  opportunity  for  use. 

Charges  vary  greatly.  It  is  said  that  as  much 
as  61/4  tons  of  explosive  has  been  fired  in  one  charge, 
resulting  n  a  crater  60  yards  by  40  yards.  Camou- 
flets,  directed  against  the  enemy's  underground  works, 
have  been  fired  at  considerable  depths  with  charges 
of  2  to  3  tons  without  breaking  through  the  ground 
surface. 

A  machine  has  been  invented  for  rapidly  drilling 
and  charging  a  small  mine,  which  will  probably  have 
considerable  use  in  countermining.  It  is  claimed  that 
a  horizontal  hole  can  be  drilled  for  1000  feet  at  a 


250  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

rate  of  two  feet  per  minute,  a  chamber  enlarged  at 
the  outer  end,  charged  with  1200  pounds  of  explosive, 
and  the  charge  exploded  electrically. 

Preparations  for  the  Assault, 

Passage  through  Obstacles.  Such  passages  should 
be  left  when  constructing  the  obstacles,  but  in  case 
this  has  been  neglected  or  there  is  need  of  amplifying 
them,  the  work  is  done  on  the  night  preceding  the 
assault. 

The  openings  are  zig-zag  or  diagonal  to  the  front 
so  as  not  to  be  apparent  to  the  enemy,  and  in  defense 
are  swept  by  machine  gun  fire  or  closed  by  portable 
obstacles. 

Sometimes  wide  saps  are  driven  under  the  entangle- 
ments for  the  passage  of  an  attacking  force. 

Parallel  d^Attaque,  The  French  make  use  of  a 
device  called  a  parallel  de  depart  or  parallel  d'attaque, 
which  is  a  trench  parallel  to  the  general  line  and 
lying  in  front  of  their  own  obstacles.  This  trench  is 
prepared  the  night  before  the  attack  by  troops  who 
wall  not  take  part  in  the  latter,  and  is  arranged  with 
steps  in  its  front  face,  so  as  to  facilitate  a  quick  exit. 
It  communicates  with  the  front  line  trench  by  saps 
or  tunnels. 

The  principal  objection  to  such  a  device,  outside 
the  labor  necessary  to  construct  it  and  the  liability 
of  interference  by  the  enemy  during  its  construc- 
tion, is  that  after  an  unsuccessful  attack  it  may  be 
occupied  by  the  enemy's  counter  attack  and  held  as 
a  thorn  in  the  side  of  the  defense. 

Preparation  of  Materials.  Engineers  always  ac- 
company an  attack  and  assist  in  the  organization  of 
captured  points.  They  should  therefore  be  provided 
with  tools  and  explosives,  revetting  materials,  particu- 
larly sand  bags,  and  wire. 

If  the   attack   is  to  be  made   from  the   trenches, 


ORGANIZATION   OF   CAPTURED   POSITIONS  251 

ladders  must  be  provided,  at  the  rate  of  about  one  to 
each  fire  bay.  When  a  mine  is  to  be  exploded  and 
the  crater  occupied,  all  trenches  will  be  in  loose  earth 
and  must  be  revetted.  Special  braced  frames  of  wood 
are  usually  made  up  and  carried  along,  to  strut  these 
trenches. 

ORGANIZATION  AFTER  CAPTURE. 

Trenches, 

Upon  the  capture  of  a  system  of  trenches  the  work 
of  organizing  for  defense  immediately  commences, 
for  every  possible  effort  will  be  made  by  vigorous 
counter  attacks  on  the  part  of  the  enemy  to  recover 
the  lost  ground.  This  organization  proceeds  by  well- 
defined  steps: 

1.  The  conversion  of  a  group  of  trenches  into  a 
strong  point ,  by: 

(a)  Throwing  over  the  parapet  towards  the 
enemy  and  constructing  a  new  firing  step.  This 
may  require  digging  the  step  out  of  the  original 
rear  wall  of  the  trench  and  using  the  excavated 
earth  for  a  parapet. 

(b)  Isolating  the  position  from  the  remaining 
trenches  held  by  the  enemy  by  encircling  it  with 
a  line  of  wire  entanglements,  made  double  and  as 
strong  as  time  will  permit. 

(c)  The  construction  of  new  trenches  if  neces- 
sary, to  secure  fire  to  the  flanks  and  preparation 
for  practically  an  all  around  defense. 

If  the  captured  system  of  trenches  is  extensive, 
it  will  be  converted  into  a  number  of  such  strong 
points,  so  arranged  as  to  support  one  another. 
These  may  later  be  connected  by  lateral  communi- 
cations so  as  to  provide  a  continuous  front  line. 

2.  The  connection  of  these  points  with  the  rear  by 
adequate  communicating  trenches,  in  order  that  sup- 


252  PREPAREDNESS    AND    THE   ENGINEER 

plies  and  fresh  troops  may  be  brought  up  and  the 
wounded  sent  to  the  rear. 

3.  The  filling  in  of  all  unused  trenches  within 
forty  or  fifty  yards  to  prevent  the  enemy's  bombers 
from  stealing  up  under  cover  and  bombarding  the 
captured  trenches  with  grenades. 

4.  The  construction  of  supporting  points  in  rear 
of  the  line  of  strong  points,  preferably  opposite  the 
intervals  between  the  latter. 

At  present,  quite  accurate  maps  of  the  enemy's 
trenches  are  made  from  photographs  taken  by  aerial 
observers,  so  it  is  usually  possible  to  formulate  a 
plan  of  action  and  assign  specific  duties  to  the  en- 
gineer troops  before  the  attack  in  order  that  their 
execution  may  proceed  without  confusion.  The  whole 
aim  of  the  defensive  works  at  the  beginning  is  to 
place  the  captured  trenches  in  a  state  to  meet  the 
first  counter  attacks.  The  occupying  troops  must  ex- 
pect to  be  practically  isolated  and  to  maintain  their 
position  against  all  attacks  until  dark. 

Fig.  103  shows  the  consolidation  of  a  system  of 
captured  trenches  into  a  strong  point. 

Villages, 

The  defense  of  a  village  is  also  planned  from  maps 
made  before  the  attack.  It  comprises  the  construction 
of  a  keep^  or  strong  point,  centrally  located  and  cap- 
able of  all  around  defense,  and  various  centers  of 
resistance  on  or  near  the  main  approaches,  connected 
to  the  keep  and  to  each  other  by  covered  or  concealed 
communications.  The  vicinity  of  prominent  build- 
ings should  be  avoided  in  locating  these  works,  as 
they  offer  a  conspicuous  mark  for  artillery. 

Cellars  are  made  into  bomb  proofs  by  covering  the 
floors  above  them  with  earth  or  sand  bags  of  gravel, 
etc.  Those  which  command  a  road  may  be  made  into 
masked  machine  gun  emplacements. 


ORGANIZATION   OF   CAPTURED   POSITIONS 


253 


q   _      /QO  2Q0  ^QO  ^qo  5Q0  6Q(^ 

3cale  )n   reet 


Key. 

>9$$>s$$$i(  l/^/re  Enfan^Jemenf. 

* ^  Machine  C^un. 

®      Li  stent  ng   Post  NeiA/   Trenches. 

'"^'^'''''''^Commun/cat/ng  Trench  tv/th  F/nng  f^rapet 

FIG.    103.      CONSOLIDATION   OF    CAPTURED    TRENCHES 


Tit  ted  in  Trench. 
Onginat  Trenches. 


254  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

The  first  step  in  organizing  the  defense  is  the  clos- 
in'g  of  all  entrances  to  the  village. 

Second,  establish  the  centers  of  resistance  to  de- 
fend these. 

Third,  construct  the  keep. 

Fourth,  construct  communications  from  keep  to 
rear  and  to  outlying  centers  of  resistance. 

Fifth,  adapt  cellars  as  above. 

Sixth,  connect  centers  of  resistance  by  lateral  com- 
inunications. 

Woods, 

The  best  position  for  a  defensive  line  through  a 
wood  is  just  far  enough  inside  to  permit  a  clear  view 
into  the  open.  If  there  is  a  hedge  at  the  border  of 
the  wood,  it  may  be  thinned  so  as  not  to  interfere 
with  the  view  and  interlaced  with  wire  to  form  an 
obstacle. 

Similarly,  thick  underbrush  may  be  thinned  out 
and  wire  strung  between  trees.  If  time  permits  the 
edge  of  the  wood  may  be  serrated  by  cutting,  and 
the  clumps  wired,  causing  the  attackers  to  bunch  in 
the  open  spaces,  where  they  make  good  targets  for 
machine  guns.  Within  the  wood  centers  of  resistance 
are  constructed  and  radiating  lanes  cleared  for  ma- 
chine gun  fire.  Deflecting  obstacles  are  placed  to 
force  the  enemy  into  these  lanes. 

Mine  Craters, 

In  Enemi/'s  Line,  Such  a  crater  usually  results 
from  a  mine  fired  under  the  enemy's  trenches,  and  is 
expected  by  the  attackers,  who  have  troops  in  readi- 
ness to  seize  the  crater.  In  this  case  the  front  lip  is 
occupied.     Fig.  104. 

The  front  of  the  crater  is  wired  and  several  squad 
trenches  are  constructed  in  the  lip,  just  behind  the 
crest.    Lateral  communication  .is  secured  by  a  trench 


ORGANIZATION   OF   CAPTURED  POSITIONS  255 


FIG.   104.      OCCUPATION  OF  FRONT  LIP  OF  MINE   CRATER. 


around  the  inside  partially  down  the  slope  from 
which  dugouts  are  built  into  the  wall  of  the  crater. 
All  trenches  should  be  provided  with  a  parados  to 
protect  the  occupants  from  reverse  fire. 

As  in  the  consolidation  of  trenches,  all  those  within 


256 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


bombing  distance  should  be  filled  in.  Communication  to 
the  rear  is  secured  through  trenches  passing  through 
the  walls  of  the  crater,  for  safety  and  for  conceal- 


To  tlnemy 


7b  Cnemy 


FIG.  105.   OCCUPATION  OF  REAR  LIP  OF  MINE  CRATER. 


ment.  These  shou'ld  be  at  the  sides,  to  avoid  enfilade, 
and  there  should  be  at  least  two,  in  case  one  is  closed 
by  falling  earth. 

In  Defending  Line,     Upon  the  enemy's  exploding 
a  mine  under  our  lines,  or  our  firing  a  countermine 


ORGANIZATION  OF  CAPTURED  POSITIONS  257 

close  in  front,  the  rear  lip  of  the  crater  should  be 
occupied. 

Several  squad  trenches  are  then  constructed  just 
in  rear  of  the  lip,  the  crater  is  filled  with  wire  and 
portable  obstacles,  and  tunnels  are  driven  through  the 
rear  lip  to  bombing  and  observation  stations  inside. 
Fig.  105. 

When  the  lip  of  a  crater  or  a  chain  of  craters  fur- 
nishes no  field  of  fire  to  the  defense,  it  is  made  into 
an  obstacle  by  filling  the  inside  with  portable  wire 
obstacles  and  installing  bombing  posts  upon  the  rear 
lip.  At  all  costs,  the  enemy  should  be  prevented  from 
seizing  the  crater,  or  approaching  under  its  cover. 

Communicating  trenches  lead  to  these  bombing 
posts,  and  wire  is  placed  to  the  front  and  sides  of 
these  approaches  at  such  a  distance  as  to  keep  the 
enemy's  bombers  out  of  range. 


CHAPTER  XYII. 
ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE. 

In  Chapter  YI  is  given  a  complete  list  of  the  duties 
with  which  Engineer  troops  are  charged.  At  the  end 
of  the  list  is  the  following: 

*^The  services  in  the  above  list  are  executed  under 
the  supervision  of  engineer  officers  by  engineer  troops, 
by  details  from  other  troops,  by  civilian  labor  or  by 
any  comhination  of  these  means  as  the  particular  cir- 
cumstances may  require." 

EXPERIENCE   IN   MODERN   CAMPAIGNS. 

The  U.  S.  military  observer  with  the  Japanese 
army  in  the  Russo-Japanese  War  stated  that  the 
duties  actually  performed  by  the  Japanese  engineers 
were  limited  to  bridge  building,  road  construction, 
building  redoubts  (strong  points  or  supporting 
points)  and  demolitions  and  that  they  were  kept  busy 
by  these  duties. 

The  observer  with  the  Russian  army  reported  that 
the  Russian  engineers  were  fully  occupied  by: 

1.  Ponton  work. 

2.  Sapping  and  mining. 

3.  A  limited  amount  of  pioneer  work. 

4.  Directing  the  labor  of  civilians  and  other  troops 
in  entrenching,  construction  of  obstacles,  road  and 
bridge  work,  railroad  repair  and  all  emergency  work. 

A  paper  upon  the  duties  of  engineer  troops,  by 
Capt.  Burgess,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army,  pub- 
lished in  1908,  states: 

*'The  best  the  engineers  can  do  is  to  accomplish 
first  the  essential  work,  then  to  perform  as  rapidly  as 

258 


ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE  259 

possible  the  other  important  works  in  the  order  of 
their  importance/' 

A  recent  British  writer,  dwelling  upon  the  work 
of  the  Royal  Engineers,  says  that  in  the  beginning 
of  the  war  demands  for  the  services  of  the  Engineers 
were  prohibitive,  and  have  resulted  in  the  taking  over 
of  a  large  amount  of  engineering  work  by  the  In- 
fantry, leaving  to  the  Engineers  the  following  duties, 
exclusive  of  mining,  railways,  etc.,  which  are  in  charge 
of  special  troops: 

1.  The  construction  of  special  points,  requiring 
great  technical  skill,  as: 

(a)  Bomb  proof  machine  gun  emplacements. 

(b)  Deep  shell  proof  dugouts  or  cave  shelters. 

(c)  Strong  points  in  the  first  line. 

(d)  Supporting  points   or  Points  d^Appiii  in 
the  rear. 

2.  Training  the  Infantry  in  the  simpler  branches 
of  engineering  work. 

3.  The  collection  of  engineer  material. 
The  two  latter  are  the  most  important. 

PROBABLE  FIELD   DUTIES   IN   U.   S.   SERVICE. 

From  the  foregoing  it  appears  that  Engineers  in 
the  field  will  not  be  able  actually  to  execute  all  the 
numerous  duties  outlined  in  Chapter  VI.  In  fact, 
as  expressed  by  one  authority,  they  will  perform  only 
such  duties  as  require  technical,  skill  or  equipment 
not  in  possession  of  other  troops. 

Topographical  work  will  be  done,  depending  upon 
the  country,  the  nature  of  the  campaign,  and  the  suf- 
ficiency of  existing  maps.  This  work,  with  photog- 
raphy and  map  reproduction,  will  be  done  by  small 
details  of  especially  qualified  men,  and  will  not  affect 
the  majority  of  the  Engineers. 

Fortification  and  siege  work  will  usually  be  exe- 


260  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

cuted  by  the  infantry  which  will  occupy  the  com- 
pleted entrenchments.  The  siting  of  these  works  will 
be  done  with  the  assistance  of  an  engineer  officer, 
and  engineers  may  supervise  the  construction,  but 
with  the  exception  of  points  requiring  special  prepara- 
tion, the  infantry  will  supply  the  labor,  using  tools 
from  the  Engineer  Train.  With  an  army  immobilized 
in  trenches,  and  no  pioneering  to  be  done  for  moving 
troops,  the  Engineers  would  be  largely  used  in  im- 
proving and  maintaining  trenches,  constructing  ob- 
stacles, etc. 

Demolitions,  especially  those  requiring  explosives, 
will  be  done  by  the  Engineers,  as  requiring  technical 
training  not  given  to  other  troops. 

Battlefield  illumination  will,  with  mining  and  rail- 
way work,  be  performed  by  special  engineer  troops, 
especially  trained  and  equipped  for  this  work. 

General  construction  will  be  delegated  to  civilian 
labor  or  to  special  troops,  unless  in  the  nature  of 
emergency  work  at  the  front. 

In  the  service  of  communications ,  or  pioneer  work, 
the  Engineers  will  find  their  true  field  of  action. 
Probably  75%  of  their  work  will  pertain  to  roads  or 
bridges  or  to  emergency  work  upon  railways  at  the 
front  and  outside  the  sphere  of  action  of  the  railway 
troops  along  the  line  of  communications. 

To  summarize,  then,  the  Engineers  in  campaign 
will  occupy  themselves  mainly  with  pioneer  work, 
demolitions,  topography,  and,  a  matter  of  which  the 
importance  is  scarcely  realized,  the  supply  of  engineer 
tools  and  material,  all  of  which  are  carried  in  greatly 
inadequate  quantities  for  the  performance  of  ex- 
tensive work. 

The  British  writer  before  mentioned  emphasizes 
this  by  quoting  the  amounts  of  material  used  in  one 
mile  of  front,  1st,  2nd  and  3rd  lines,  with  all  com- 
munications, as  follows : 


ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE  261 

Wire:  l,600,00a  yards,  or  900  miles;  weight  110 
tons. 

Posts :  12,000. 

Pickets:  12,000. 

Sand  bags:  6,250,000;  weight  1,000  tons. 

Corrugated  iron :  36,000  running  feet. 

Timber,  average  3'^  x  3'' :  1,125,000  linear  feet. 

All  this  is  in  addition  to  the  revetting  materiaFs  re- 
quired, as  planks,  wire  netting,  expanded  metal,  etc. 

An  engineer  regiment  of  a  thousand  men  would 
require  8  months  to  fill  and  place  the  sand  bags  alone. 
In  one  division,  holding  two  or  more  miles  of  front, 
there  are  carried  only  7,500  sand  bags,  4,500  in  the 
Engineer  Train  and  3,000  in  the  company  tool 
wagons. 

Furthermore,  in  one  wagon  of  the  Engineer  Train, 
intended  for  the  use  of  a  regiment  of  infantry,  2,002 
enlisted  men,  there  are  only  450  excavating  tools 
(shovels  and  picks),  an  average  of  one  to  about  five 
men.  If  working  in  two  reliefs  there  would  still  be 
less  than  one  tool  to  two  men. 

It  is  stated  that  the  shortage  of  tools  among  the 
British  troops  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  was  a 
great  handicap,  and  that  the  surrounding  country 
was  continually  being  scoured  for  shovels,  etc. 

The  duties  of  the  22nd  N.  Y.  Engineers  on  the 
Mexican  Border,  as  divisional  engineer  troops,  were 
largely  confined  to  pioneer  and  topographical  work. 
A  considerable  amount  of  fortification  and  other  work 
was  done  for  drill  and  instruction  purposes,  but  the 
duties  performed  in  response  to  calls  from  Division 
Headquarters  were  practically  all  of  the  former  char- 
acter. 

Topography, 

This  is  usually  done  by  the  methods  of  road  sketch- 
ing, using  the  engineer  sketching  board,  as  described 


262  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

in  Chapter  XIII.  These  road  sketches  may  cover 
quite  a  long  distance  with  sufficient  accuracy  for 
military  purposes.  When  troops  are  assembled  for 
extended  periods  in  camp,  however,  the  engineers 
are  usually  called  upon  for  a  complete  map  of  the 
surrounding  country.  In  assembling  field  sketches 
to  make  such  a  map,  the  lack  of  some  system  of 
control  becomes  very  evident. 

At  Camp  Whitman,  N.  Y.,  the  Engineers  made  a 
maneuver  map  of  the  surrounding  country,  covering 
about  64  square  miles.  The  control  in  this  case  was 
a  skeleton  of  roads,  enlarged  by  co-ordinates  from  the 
U.  S.  Geological  Survey  Map. 

Control  hy  Automohile  Traverse,  On  the  Border, 
however,  these  maps  were  incomplete,  numbers  of  new 
roads  having  been  opened  since  they  were  made.  The 
area  to  be  covered  was  about  200  square  miles,  extend- 
ing for  36  miles  along  the  Rio  Grande,  this  being  the 
sector  covered  by  the  N.  Y.  Division. 

The  use  of  an  automobile  traverse  for  control  was 
decided  upon  after  it  had  been  successfully  tried  for 
mapping  a  new  stretch  of  road  about  15  miles  in 
length.  A  prismatic  compass  was  used  for  direction 
and  the  speedometer  for  distance.  The  latter,  gradu- 
ated to  tenths  of  a  mile,  could  easily  be  read  to 
quarter-tenths,  which,  on  a  scale  of  3  inches  to  one 
mile,  is  about  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch.  Moreover,  the 
error  of  reading  is  not  cumulative.  A  circuit  of  35 
miles  by  this  method  was  closed  within  a  tenth  of  a 
mile,  and  another  of  21  miles  within  half  this  amount. 

Furthermore,  as  the  work  developed,  and  the  possi- 
bilities of  the  plan  became  apparent,  the  notes  were 
made  very  complete,  as  in  Fig.  106,  so  that  they 
could  form  the  basis  of  a  complete  road  map. 

Such  a  traverse  could  be  made  at  a  rate  of  10  to 
12  miles  per  hour,  and  on  one  day  80  miles  were 


ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE  263 

completed.  Most  of  the  notes  were  taken  while  under 
way,  but  a  stop  could  always  be  made  if  the  sketching 
got  behind.  A  majority  of  the  roads  were  straight 
and  through  wild  country,  necessitating  fewer  notes 
than  shown  in  Fig.  106.     The  notes  were  legible  to 

AUTO   TRAVERSE    NOTES 

CO     /?^-  /^/SS/o/7  —  y^z    O^3o' 
COS  /?.R    y<z.    o-3or 
0,37S    /tV    R.-Zr^t.    J^PO" 

ar     /?c/.  L.  Az.  ^o^'-Ch^o'/ 0^-  Cv//^ L 
Id     Cross  /?^-  ^z  ^^  -  car" /r'L.    *^ ' 

/.2S     CC7A?<7/    ^/p/?C^7  -  /fz.    SO  -/P^/.  ^2.  <yj  -    CC///:  &/7C/S. 

/3S    RR  /fz.SS*'- Afo/7c/sfi^ry  /SO yc/s  /?.^/:jL. 

/.^S     CuMl. 

/.SS     Ccy//^/..  e^^s.--  //ot/se-l,  ^^^^—~ 

Zb    £R  =^- 

2S     Re/  RL.  -/fz.  O  *-3C'-  ^n^  fRL. 

Z.6     /^£/.L.-/fz.3S*'^  3ffnc/-/^z./2S'' 

12. S^  C^^?i7/  ffjyc/R^  /7z  Byj*"-  Re/.  R-/rz.  27J^/^R:==;=L 

3,0  3eoc/-/fz.SS:'-/f<:/R.-Az.//0''        -— ^^   - 

^.S  Re/  R^Az.  a^ST-S/p^y/^^  3v^^y^z.Cf^30^  7l^rr7/.'-0//^Rl.'^^-^ 

FIG.   106.      AUTOMOBILE  TRAVERSE  NOTES 


the  person  making  them  if  plotted  immediately  after 
returning  to  camp. 

With  such  a  skeleton  of  the  main  roads,  showing  all 
branches,  the  sketches  could  not  go  far  wrong,  and 
it  was  a  simple  matter  in  headquarters  to  transfer 
the  sketch  maps  to  the  control  sheet. 


^5^^ 


264 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


Coytrxoj   Crvjj//7f 


'  Moored  Crojs/n^ 


-  //nprvtvtf  Hooeb 
=—=l/Va^on  Traila 
—  /motion  Dikh 

*<*!•  CmbanAmenf 
„v*  "  Meadoiv  Land 

tCu/fJvatton 
<*    *   Cactus 
•o   *  Me^u/fe 


3ca/e       / /nch     —    /  mi/« 


FIG.   107.      SECTION  OF  MEXICAN  BORDER 
MAPPED   BY   22nd   N.   Y.   ENGINEERS 


ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE  265 

The  individual  sketchers  went  out  alone,  and  as 
many  as  sixteen  were  used  at  one  time.  They  worked 
regardless  of  hours,  catching  rides  on  supply  wagons 
or  trucks  when  their  work  lay  at  a  distance  from 
the  camp  (often  fifteen  to  twenty  miles),  and  putting 
up  at  the  nearest  outpost  or  infantry  camp  when  over- 
taken by  darkness. 

For  the  work  near  the  river,  a  man  was  sent  to 
each  outpost,  where  he  was  attached  for  rations  and 
made  his  home  for  a  week  or  more,  until  his  sector 
was  completed. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  work,  the  automobile 
traverse  being  completed,  sketchers  were  given  control 
sheets  covering  three  or  four  square  miles,  to  be  filled 
in.  "With  this  method,  a  daily  rate  of  progress  of 
two  square  miles  per  man  was  not  unusual. 

The  total  field  work,  covering  about  200  square 
miles,  was  completed  in  less  than  one  month's  work- 
ing time,  and  in  much  more  detail  (on  account  of 
the  scale,  3"  =  1  mi.),  than  the  military  map  (scale: 
1^''  =  1  mi.).  The  country  was  so  flat  that  contouring 
by  reconnaissance  methods  was  impracticable,  there- 
fore no  relief  was  shown.  Drainage  was  largely  by  a 
chain  of  swamps  and  shallow  lakes,  into  which  sur- 
face water  drained,  to  be  evaporated  or  to  find  its  way 
slowly  to  the  river. 

Fig.  107  shows  a  section  of  the  map  as  made  in 
this  manner.  The  original  scale  of  3  inches  to  the 
mile  was  reduced  to  1  inch  to  the  mile  in  this  repro- 
duction. 

Mapping  by  Range  Finder.  Machine  gun  com- 
panies and  troops  are  now  equipped  with  a  self-con- 
tained range  finder,  consisting  of  a  tube  about  3  feet 
long  and  4  inches  in  diameter,  mounted  at  its  center 
upon  a  light  tripod.  In  one  side,  near  the  ends,  are 
two  windows,  containing  prisms. 


266 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


These  refract  the  fields  of  view  to  the  center,  where 
they  are  seen  superimposed  through  an  eye-piece  in 
the  center  of  one  side,  opposite  the  objective  windows. 
An  adjusting  roller  controls  the  angle  of  the  end 


,     iW  iOO*  IW  180'  "•'■"u.«~oi -t***'.--^.     -  -  -     ■">""t.......uu.-.. 

l,rrr7:^-.r-rlr,Ml,M.l.,,,l,,,M.,MlMMl.M,^M^rM,r,T:,,,l .1 


FIG.  108.      TOPOGRAPHY  BY  SELF-CONTAINED 
RANGE-FINDER 


ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE 


267 


Lengfhof  Pace 

1^ 


2^30323436 

Length  oTPoc^ 


HrCDNSlnA 


H  ^  c/iffcrcnce  /n  Ekvaf/on  m  feef 

D  -  normal  length  of  pace  in  feef 

ti  »  nifmber  of  paces 

C*  cocfficicnf (assuming  D  decreases  li%  per  degree  of  slope) 

cc «  angle  of  slope  in  degrees 
For  an u  pace  lenglh,  find  Ihe  inhrsecfjon  oflheknglh  ofpoc^ 
w/lh  we  number  of  paces;  projcci  ihis  po/nf  hor/^onlo//i/  /o 
3C"(7x/s.  Then  a  sfraighl  line  bely/een  ihis  new  po/nf  $  angle  of 
slope,  g/yes  Ihe  corresponding  difference  ofck/alion  on  H-oxis 

FIG.    109.       SLOPE    REDUCTION    DIAGRAM 


^A^ 


268 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


prisms,  and  consequently  the  position  of  the  images 
in  front  of  the  eye-piece.  A  sliding  scale  is  actuated 
by  the  same  roller.  When  the  two  images,  one  from 
each  end  prism,  appear  in  conjunction,  the  range 
may  be  read  upon  the  scale.  An  accuracy  of  0.5% 
may  be  attained  with  this  three-foot  base  up  to  1500 
yards  or  more. 


FIG.  110.      RANGE  CARD 


The  use  of  this  instrument  for  topographical  work 
was  first  suggested  to  the  writer  by  an  infantry  of- 
ficer of  the  regular  service.'  Upon  investigating,  it 
was  found  to  be  feasible  for  very  rapid  work  in  a 
level  country.  The  observer  takes  his  post  upon  a 
building  or  other  elevated  point,  reads  distances  by 
the  range  finder  and  directions  by  a  prismatic  com- 
pass.   It  is  simply  the  stadia  method  without  the  rod- 


ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE  269 

man.  The  use  of  polar  co-ordinate  paper,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  108,  is  a  great  aid  to  rapid  plotting. 

Contouring  is  impracticable  by  this  method,  but 
a  rough  sort  of  trigonometric  leveling  might  be  done 
by  the  clinometer  for  comparative  elevations  of 
nearby  points. 

Fig.  109  shoves  a  diagram  for  computing  elevations 
from  slopes,  devised  by  Master  Engineer  N.  D. 
Richardson,  1st  Battalion,  22nd  N.  Y.  Engineers. 
Although  designed  primarily  for  use  in  conjunction 
with  pacing,  it  may  be  employed  for  known  distances, 
using  36-inch  paces  as  yards.  Such  a  diagram  might 
be  pasted  upon  the  back  of  a  sketching  board  and 
used  in  place  of  a  scale  of  map  distances  (see 
Chapter  XIII,  p.  185). 

A  useful  application  of  the  range-finder  method  is 
in  the  making  of  a  range  card  (Fig.  110).  These 
cards  are  drawn  up  for  the  foreground  of  a  defensive 
position  and  one  is  placed  in  each  fire  bay  of  the 
trenches. 

Roads. 

Most  military  roads,  especially  those  built  for 
military  purposes,  are  dirt  roads.  Their  greatest 
enemy  is  mud,  for  which  the  remedy  is  drainage. 
In  a  flat  country,  however,  there  is  usually  lacking  a 
place  to  which  the  water  may  be  drained. 

In  southern  Texas  the  soil  has  no  cohesion  when 
dry  and  no  bottom  when  wet.  The  roads  were  made 
by  the  simple  process  of  driving  across  country,  so 
that  the  scant  vegetation  was  soon  worn  off,  then  the 
soil  pulverized  and  blew  away,  and  the  road  was 
below  the  grade  of  the  surrounding  country.  Dur- 
ing the  rainy  season  they  were  never  dry  and  large 
mudholes,  a  hundred  yards  or  more  long  and  the 
full  width  of  the  road,  almost  stopped  motor  trans- 


270  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

portation.  These  mudholes  would  dry  into  a  hard 
crust  on  top,  presenting  apparently  a  solid  surface, 
but  which  would  break  under  the  load  of  a  truck  and 
let  it  down  to  the  hubs  in  the  liquid  mud  under- 
neath. 

The  Engineers  were  called  upon  to  repair  some 
particularly  bad  mudholes,  and  found  the  job  almost 
hopeless.  The  road  was  below  the  general  surface, 
and  could  not  be  raised  without  an  amount  of  fill 
beyond  the  capacity  of  the  men  or  tools.  No  timber 
was  to  be  had  for  corduroying,  and  there  was  not  a 
stone  in  the  country  for  metalling.  No  more  substan- 
tial soil  could  be  obtained  for  filling,  and  although 
deep  ditches  would  have  drained  the  road,  they  would 
have  filled  in  the  next  rain  and  the  water  would 
have  again  covered  the  road. 

Apparently  the  only  course  of  action  was  to  fill 
the  mudholes  with  dry  earth  from  the  sides.  This 
was  done,  and  after  completing  about  a  twenty-foot 
section  a  motor  truck  came  along,  broke  through  the 
fresh  earth  and  was  hopelessly  mired  in  the  mud 
underneath.  The  fresh  earth  had  not  absorbed  any 
of  the  water  and  the  mud  was  as  soft  as  ever  under 
the  fill. 

The  correct  method  of  dealing  with  the  mud-holes 
was  therefore  learned  by  bitter  experience.  All  the 
mud  had  to  be  taken  out  and  dumped  at  the  roadside. 
Then  the  hole  was  filled  with  dry  earth,  directing  the 
traffic  so  as  to  compact  the  fill  as  much  as  possible. 
The  road  was  then  crowned  to  insure  the  water's 
standing  upon  the  sides  of  the  road  after  a  rain  in- 
stead of  in  the  center. 

A  number  of  bad  mudholes  were  repaired  by  this 
method,  and  in  some  cases  a  plow  or  a  road  scoop 
could  be  obtained  from  neighboring  farms,  which 
greatly  expedited  the  work,  as  the  only  engineer 
tools  available  were  entrenching  shovels  and  picks. 


ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE  271 

After  the  rainy  season  had  passed,  however,  this 
filled-in  earth  pulverized  into  fine  dust,  much  of  which 
blew  away,  and  some  remained  to  become  mud  with 
the  next  rain.  Almost  continual  work  by  a  larger 
force  than  the  Engineers  could  muster  would  have 
been  necessary  to  maintain  the  roads  within  the 
maneuver  area  of  the  N.  Y.  Division. 

The  Engineers  of  the  punitive  expedition  into 
Mexico  had  much  the  same  experience  with  this  soil. 
They  tried  various  expedients,  and  finally,  by  the  aid 
of  road  building  machinery,  built  and  maintained 
two  roads  for  wet  and  dry  weather,  respectively.  The 
wet  weather  road  was  graded  to  a  higher  level  than 
the  surrounding  country  and  was  therefore  well 
drained.  It  became  wet,  but  not  deep  in  mud,  as 
water  could  not  stand  upon  it. 

In  dry  weather,  however,  the  surface  of  this  road 
became  pulverized  and  deep  in  dust,  forming  almost 
as  much  of  an  impediment  to  traffic  as  the  mud. 

It  was  found,  however,  that  in  dry  weather  the 
trucks  could  run  across  trackless  country,  which,  as 
undisturbed  soil,  would  stand  considerable  traffic  be- 
fore becoming  dusty.  A  road  was  therefore  laid  out 
paralleling  the  graded  road,  and  when  the  dust  be- 
came too  deep,  it  was  removed  by  the  roadscraper, 
leaving  a  wearing  surface  of  the  natural  earth.  Al- 
though water  stood  in  this  road  in  rainy  weather  it 
did  not  deteriorate,  as  there  was  no  traffic  to  cut  it 
up,  and,  similarly,  the  graded  road  did  not  pulverize 
in  dry  weather,  as  the  traffic  was  shifted  to  the  other 
road  when  it  became  dry. 

Bridges. 

Much  of  the  work  of  the  Engineers  will  consist  of 
the  reconstruction,  repair  or  strengthening  of  bridges. 
If  operating  in  a  developed  country  original  construe- 


272  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

tion  will  be  rare,  as  most  of  the  roads  will  be  well 
supplied  with  bridges. 

The  simple  pile  bridge  will  be  almost  universally 
employed  for  replacements,  even  up  to  a  considerable 
length,  while  there  will  be  numerous  beam  bridges 
of  probably  only  one  or  two  spans  which  may  delay 
a  wagon  train  indefinitely  if  not  in  repair  or  for 
lack  of  proper  strengthening. 

The  repair  or  strengthening  of  a  large  truss  bridge 
is  a  job  for  the  bridge  carpenters  and  erectors  with 
the  line  of  communication  troops,  and  not  for  the 
pioneers  at  the  front,  but  ordinarily  such  bridges, 
if  not  damaged,  will  be  strong  enough  to  bear  the 
army  loads  one  at  a  time,  or  if  destroyed  recourse 
may  be  had  to  the  ponton  train  or  a  pile  bridge. 

Bridge  Reconnaissance.  The  maneuver  territory  of 
the  New  York  Division  in  Texas  was  cut  up  by  an 
intricate  network  of  irrigation  canals  and  ditches, 
with  numerous  bridges  of  the  beam  or  pile  type. 
These  were  not  built  for  the  heavy  army  trucks,  and 
needed  many  repairs.  The  maintenance  of  these 
bridges  fell  to  the  Engineers,  and  in  order  to  keep 
the  records  straight  and  simplify  the  organization  of 
the  work,  a  reconnaissance  of  all  the  bridges  in  the 
district  was  undertaken. 

A  system  of  identification  was  adopted,  the  bridge 
being  known  by  a  number  and  by  the  name  of  the 
road  upon  which  located.  A  non-commissioned  officer 
and  one  man  set  out  mounted  to  measure  the  bridges 
and  to  obtain  the  required  data  about  each,  from  which 
the  office  force  could  prepare  the  inspection  reports. 
These  men  could  measure  only  about  ten  or  twelve 
bridges  a  day  in  this  manner,  however,  and  in  addi- 
tion they  had  trouble  in  fixing  the  distance  between 
bridges  by  timing  the  horses.  They  were  therefore 
sent  out  in  an  automobile  and  succeeded  in  covering 
over  fifty  bridges  in  a  day,  taking  distances  from 


ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE 


273 


MOMENT    DIAGRAM 
UN/rOf^M     LOADS 


-1000 
-900 

BOO 

■•TOO 

'GOO 

^-500    ^ 


\'400 


SI 


300 


V200    \ 
/50 


125 


^/OO 


100 


200 

■300 
400 

\-600 

eoo 

fooo 
1200 

\/600 
■2000       d, 


2400      djj:27m^ 


20n 
I5\ 

7- 
6- 

«0 


f^H 


4- 


I- 


/- 


rind  infensection  of  a  fine  betifveen  i^a/ues  on  the 
IV  &  L  axe3  yvi/h  line  Chb,   A  fin^  £vm  /his  point 
thru  any  point  on  fhe  H  axi^,  yiVes  corrzspon^^ 
ing  ya/ues  on  ct^  &  d^  axe^s. 

FIG.    111.      MOMENT   DIAGRAM,   BRIDGE   DECKING 


274 


PREPAREDNESS    AND    THE   ENGINEER 


3HEA  R      D/A  GRA  M 
UNIFORM  LOADS 


-/ooo 

-IC 

b 

-900 

^°A 

-doo 

-TVO 

IS~- 

^ 

-600 
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<0 

%  a'- 

■% 

vj  /O- 

k  8- 

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Ihru    any  point  on  the   3  ax/3  g/ycs   correspond 
jng  values   on  d^  a  d^  axes. 

FIG.    112.       SHEAR    DIAGRAM,    BRIDGE    DECKING 


ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE  .275 

the  speedometer  and  obtaining  full  data  regarding 
each  bridge.  This  reconnaissance  and  the  topographi- 
cal work  described  earlier  in  this  chapter  emphasize 
the  utility  of  one  or  more  motor  cars  in  an  engineer 
organization.  Both  pieces  of  work  would  have  been 
greatly  delayed  and  perhaps  never  satisfactorily  com- 
pleted were  it  not  for  this  one  private  motor  car  at 
regimental  headquarters. 

The  labor  of  computing  the  safe  loads  upon  these 
bridges  was  enormous,  and  was  proceeding  at  a  very 
slow  rate,  when  the  following  set  of  diagrams  were 
devised  and  constructed  by  Master  Engineer  Richard- 
son, 1st  Battalion. 

The  first,  Fig.  Ill,  can  be  used  either  for  designing 
or  for  investigating  the  strength  of  bridge  decking. 
It  is  applicable  to  rectangular  or  round  timbers,  and 
will  give  the  unit  stresses  for  any  uniform  load.  Its 
use  is  explained  by  the  note  under  the  diagram. 

The  second,  Fig.  112,  is  similar  to  the  first,  but  is 
designed  for  investigating  the  strength  of  the  deck- 
ing in  shear. 

Fig.  113  is  similar  to  Fig.  Ill,  but  applies  to 
stringers.  Owing  to  the  greater  number  of  factors 
entering  into  its  composition,  it  could  not  be  made 
applicable  to  all  loads,  so  100  pounds  per  square  foot 
was  adopted  as  a  figure  not  usually  exceeded,  and  the 
diagram  was  worked  out  for  this  value.  As  in  Fig. 
Hi,  it  may  be  used  for  either  round  or  rectangular 
timbers. 

Fig.  114  is  for  investigating  shear  in  stringers. 

For  the  concentrated  loads  that  travel  with  an 
army,  the  tables  in  Figs.  115  and  116  were  designed. 

The  use  of  these  tables  is  self-explanatory.  They 
read  unit  stresses  and  shears  direct.  A  five-ton  motor 
truck  has  been  taken  as  the  standard,  but  as  unit 
stress  and  shear  are  both  direct  functions  of  the  load, 
they  may  be  made  applicable  to  any  load,  proportion- 


276 


PREPAREDNESS   AND    THE   ENGINEER 


MOMENT  DIAGRAM  -  3TRINGE:R3 
Uniform  Load  of  JOO  lbs  per  3g.  // 


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FIG.  113.     MOMENT  DIAGRAM,  BRIDGE  STRINGERS 


ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE 


277 


SHEAR     D/ A  GRAM  -  STR/NG^RS 
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FIG.    114.      SHEAR   DIAGRAM,   BRIDGE   STRINGERS 


278 


PREPAREDNESS   AND    THE   ENGINEER 


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FIG.   115.      STRESSES  IN  DECKING,   CONCENTRATED   LOADS 

the    same    total   weight   as   the   motor   truck   would 
cause  twice  the  unit  stresses  and  shears  due  to  the 


ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE 


279 


motor  truck  wheel.  Of  course,  if  the  two  axles  of  the 
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hold  for  the  bending  stress  in  the  stringer.  The 
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STRINGER  3TRE5SE5  UNDER  CONCENTRfiTSD  lOflC^S. 

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FIG.  116.    STRESSES  IN  STRINGERS,  CONCENTRATED 
LOADS 


280  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

to  a  stringer  span  of  osse  X  the  distance  between 
the  truck  axles,  ==  1.71  X  8  =  13.68  feet. 

Compared  with  the  usual  long  formulas  and  rules 
of  thumb  given  in  text  books  for  determining  the 
bearing  power  of  bridges,  these  diagrams  are  a  great 
improvement.  Their  accuracy  is  equal  to  that  of  the 
formulas  and  greater  than  that  of  the  empirical  rules 
proposed.  Furthermore,  the  saving  in  time  is  a  great 
factor,  not  only  in  the  actual  computation,  but  in  the 
searching  of  text-books  for  the  proper  rules  and 
formulas. 

In  applying  these  diagrams  the  condition  of  the 
timber  is  allowed  for  by  choosing  the  working  stresses. 
Moreover,  there  is  an  additional  factor  of  safety  in 
the  continuity  of  the  decking,  causing  action  as  a 
continuous  beam  and  consequently  lower  stresses. 
Also,  this  continuity  operates  to  reduce  the  load  upon 
the  stringer.  As  the  stringer  under  the  wheel  de- 
flects, the  stiffness  of  the  decking  transmits  a  portion 
of  the  load,  sometimes  as  much  as  40%,  to  adjacent 
stringers.  This  cannot  be  allowed  for  in  the  dia- 
grams, owing  to  the  probability  of  joints  in  the 
decking,  and  so  may  be  considered  only  as  additional 
strength. 

The  diagrams  may  be  used  to  investigate  the  wood 
floor  system  of  a  highway  bridge  of  several  panels. 

The  bridge  inspection  reports  were  made  up  as 
shown  in  Figs.  117  and  118,  each  with  a  cross- 
section  and  profile  of  the  bridge,  its  dimensions,  loca- 
tion, condition,  and  safe  load  as  computed  by  the 
diagram.  These  reports  were  prepared  in  strips,  one 
strip  to  a  road,  so  that  a  bridge  report  could  be 
sent  out  complete  with  each  map  of  a  proposed  line 
of  march. 

The  engineer  officers,  in  their  maneuver  marches 
and  road  repairing  expeditions,  would  list  all  bridges 
needing  repairs  and  send  these  reports,  with  an  esti- 


ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE 


281 


McflLLEN-HlDfiLGO    Ro^D 
No  /    Bridge  /ir  end  of  L/tKE 


To fal  Length  -  /3S  ft 
9  spans  -  /S-o"  tong 
F/oor/ng-  j"'//" /6'o"  Sec/fon  /^-8 

S/tingerS' 3"mi2"a  i^'-o" 
F/oor  beams  -  S' "3^/6 -or 
F/tes-  5*5> 
tfater/a/'  cec/oK 
Cond/t/on-  Gooct  fhraugJ7^ut^ 
Brictge  sfions  moKstj  q/  enct  o/  /oAe 

y/r€/y//r  oF  Br/ctge 

/tssumin^  Soo'^persy.w.  /ormomen^  onct  /oo^/oer 

s^  /n.  For  stjeat,  ftje  a//otYah/e  t/n/Form  /oact  on 

Sr/atge  =  SS^yoers^.F/.  f^cyer/7ec/  /?y  /no/nent  ^/ress 

//7  s/r/ngers) 

^  S-fon  /nohr  /rt/ck  iA//th  ax/es  spocect  S//  c/s. 

^fves  f/7e  /o//ow/n^  s/resses^  jhokv/ngi  need  oF 

re/n/orcc/nen-t 


Ffemifers 

Afonrent 

Shear 

P/oor/np 

833  /as/s9.m 

70  /tj/s<7/n 

^Mn^ers 

/.680 

J03 

F/aordeams 

330 

S9       - 

FIG.    117.      BRIDGE    INSPECTION    REPORT 


282 


PREPAREDNESS   AND    THE   ENGINEER 


^^ 


'E 


J55 


F/oor  of 


y^-e" 


Bridge 


J9^" 


^/cfe  £/evaf/on 
Tofa/  /eA7p/-h  =  8S6" 
4^ S/yans  -  /9'6"/orfg 
F/oor/r?g-  3*8*  2/ '-o" 
Sfnn^ers-  3 * / V-  20  6' 
F/oor  Bean7S-/Z'^/Z'22'd 
PffeS'    /o"  ak"  d/ome/er 
Mafer/a/   ye//otfY  p/ne 
Condition-  ^ooc/ 


C/o<^  So// 7        . 


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w/fh   20  //  Jmyahcr?  di/cA 
rrear  -^oiy/h  end 


See-// on  /?'/? 


fi!ssi/n7Jn^   /ooo'*yj(^jn  fornfomen/-  d  /oo^/si^ /n  forjhear: 
FfJ/ovrob/e  uniform  /oaaf  =  87*^/s^  f/:  {^oyerned  bi^ 
momenf  3/ress  //?  ^fr/'n^ers  ] 

fi  S-fon  mofvr /-n/ck  \y/f/?  a jr/es  spaced  S-ff  o/?orf  ^//es 
f/re  fo//o^/n^  j/resses,  s/x)vv/ny  need  of  re/nforcenyenf 


Members 

/foment 

S/?eor 

F/oor/np 

/e60^/s<^jn 

/04^/jip./(7 

Sfr/ngers 

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3S 

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390 

26       ' 

FIG.  118.      BRIDGE  INSPECTION  REPORT 


ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE 


283 


mate  of  the  men  and  materials  needed,  to  regimental 
headquarters.  If  the  camp  quartermaster  could  be 
induced  to  supply  a  truck  and  some  lumber,  it  usually 


Before  After 

FIG.    119.      REPAIRING   BRIDGE   DECKING   WITHOUT 
NEW   LUMBER 


was  not  long  before  a  working  party  was  on  its  way 
to  the  scene.  The  Engineers  were  considerably  handi- 
capped by  lack  of  motor  transportation  of  their  own. 


284 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


When  other  troops  reported  a  broken  bridge,  an 
officer  was  sent  out  in  a  motor-cycle  side-car,  of  which 
one,  privately  owned,  was  available.  He  would  be 
back  in  a  couple  of  hours  with  full  information  as 
to  the  required  repairs  and  an  exact  location  of  the 
bridge  by  the  motor-cycle  speedometer. 

Bridge  Bepairs,  The  repair  of  a  wooden  bridge 
deck  is  a  simple  matter  for  any  man  who  can  wield 
a  saw  and  hammer.  Fig.  119  shows  how  this  was 
accomplished  in  several  cases  without  new  material, 
by  taking  up  the  broken  planks  and  reversing  them 

Ofig/naf  3/cpe   of  Sank, 
\Af  Completion   of  iVorA. 
— -^^ffer  J  Weeks  Weat 


Leve/  of  fToad  m^. 
FIG.    120.      REPAIRING   BRIDGE  APPROACHES 


with  a  butt  joint  over  one  stringer.  Marching  col- 
umns with  wheeled  transportation  were  thus  enabled 
to  proceed  with  little  delay. 

Fig.  120  shows  a  common  condition  which  it  was 
frequently  required  to  correct.  In  the  flat  country 
of  southern  Texas,  the  irrigation  canals  were  all  built 
above  the  ground  level.  This  necessitated  steep  ap- 
proaches by  ramps,  which  were  often  found  as  shown, 
necessitating  considerable  filling  before  they  became 
practicable  for  army  trucks. 

Strengthening  Bridges,  The  strengthing  of  bridges 
in  the  field  is  usually  limited  to  the  simple  beam 
or  pile  types,  or  to  the  floor  systems  of  truss  bridges. 

If  the  decking  is  weak,  it  may  be  saved  by  running 


ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE 


285 


the  wheels  over  or  as  near  the  stringers  as  possible, 
as  in  Fig.  121(a).  This  method  was  used  a  number 
of  times  with  a  particularly  heavy  load,  a  water  tank 
mounted  upon  a  truck,  and  prevented  broken  floors 
in  each  case. 


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FIG.   121.      STRENGTHENING  DECK  OF  BRIDGE 


The  method  shown  in  Fig.  121(b),  by  laying  extra 
tracks  under  the  wheels,  will  not  only  increase  the 
strength  of  the  decking,  but  of  the  whole  floor  sys- 
tem, by  better  distribution  of  the  load  to  the  stringers. 
That    in   Fig.    121    (c),    of   laying    an    entire    new 


286  PREPAREDNESS   AND    THE   ENGINEER 

floor  system,  stringers  and  decking,  upon  the  old 
floor,  will  add  greatly  to  the  strength.  Care  must 
be  taken  that  the  new  stringers  overlap  the  abut- 
ments. All  these  methods  may  be  applied  not  only 
to  beam  bridges  as  shown,  but  to  the  floor  systems 
of  truss  or  pile  bridges  as  well. 

Fig.  122(a)  shows  a  method  of  strengthening  the 
stringers  of  a  bridge  by  shortening  the  span,  as  the 
unit  stresses  vary  with  the  square  of  the  span.  The 
struts  may  be  placed  under  each  stringer  or  under 
those  which  carry  the  wheels. 

Fig.  122(b)  shows  how  this  may  be  applied  to  a 
pile  bridge.  At  the  left  the  braces  support  transverse 
floor  beams,  and  at  the  right  braces  must  be  applied 
to  each  stringer,  or  to  those  under  the  wheel  tracks, 
as  in  (a). 

Fig.  122  (c)  shows  an  inverted  king-post,  formed 
of  a  strut  and  wire  ties,  which  are  tightened  by 
twisting.  If  the  floor  beam  at  the  top  of  the  strut 
is  omitted,  only  the  stringers  actually  trussed  in 
this  manner  will  be  strengthened.  This  method  may 
be  made  applicable  to  the  floor  system  of  a  truss 
bridge. 

STAFF  OFFICERS  OF  ENGINEERS. 

Ordinarily  there  are  no  engineer  officers  attached 
to  the  staffs  of  the  various  unit  commanders.  When 
engineer  troops  are  serving  with  an  organization, 
their  commander  becomes  the  engineer  officer  upon 
the  staff  of  the  commanding  officer  of  the  division, 
brigade  or  regiment  to  which  attached.  He  remains  a 
line  officer,  while  performing  staff  duty. 

The  functions  of  the  Engineer  staff  officer  are 
advisory  in  character.  He  recommends  the  under- 
taking of  various  engineering  works  as  their  need 
becomes  apparent  to  him.  He  uses  his  engineer 
personnel  to  prepare  plans  for  executing  the  work, 


ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE 


287 


FIG.   122.      STRENGTHENING  STRINGERS  OF  BRIDGE 


and  when  the  plans  are  approved,  for  carrying  them 
into  effect,  calling  upon  the  infantry  for  such  work- 
ing parties  as  are  required. 


288  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

An  engineer  regiment  is  frequently  split  up  and 
the  sub-divisions  assigned  to  different  brigades  or 
even  regiments.  Their  general  function  is  to  assist 
the  infantry  in  the  work  at  hand. 

Entrenching,  "When  the  division  or  brigade  is 
assigned  to  a  sector  for  defense,  the  commanding 
officer  and  the  engineer  study  the  situation  from 
maps  and,  if  possible,  by  personal  observation  of  the 
site,  determine  the  location  and  character  of  the  de- 
fensive works. 

The  engineer  then  assigns  to  each  particular  work 
an  officer  and  a  number  of  men  to  supervise  and 
assist  in  its  construction.  He  determines  the  size  of 
details  required  from  the  infantry  and  makes  requisi- 
tion to  the  chief  of  staff  for  the  necessary  working 
parties.  He  also  orders  tools  and  materials  sent  up 
from  the  Engineer  Train. 

The  officer  assigned  to  a  section  of  the  entrench- 
ments collects  his  detail  of  engineer  non-commissioned 
officers  and  men  and  proceeds  to  the  site  with  stakes, 
tracing  tape  and  tools.  If  possible,  all  the  prelimi- 
nary work  is  done  before  the  arrival  of  the  working 
parties,  so  that  they  may  be  placed  on  the  line  im- 
mediately upon  reaching  the  site. 

1st.  The  work  is  traced  out  with  tape  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  location  and  type  decided  upon  by 
the  chief  engineer  and  probably  marked  as  to  general 
line  by  a  few  tall  stakes. 

2nd.  The  tools  are  piled  ready  for  distribution. 
Sometimes  these  are  laid  out  along  the  line,  mark- 
ing out  the  task  of  each  man. 

3rd.  Details  of  engineer  troops  are  told  off  for  the 
more  difficult  construction,  as  framing  for  bomb- 
proofs,  etc. 

4th.  Various  engineer  non-commissioned  officers 
and  privates  are  detailed  along  the  line  to  supervise 
the  work  of  the  infantry. 


ENGINEERS  IN  FIELD  SERVICE  289 

When  the  working  parties  arrive,  they  are  placed 
upon  the  line  by  the  engineer  officer  in  charge. 

Picks  and  shovels  are  placed  in  two  piles,  each  in 
charge  of  an  engineer  soldier.  The  infantry  pass 
between  th^se  piles,  and  each  man  is  handed  both  a 
pick  and  a  shovel.  They  march  in  single  file  along 
the  traced  line  of  entrenchments,  are  halted  and 
faced  to  the  front.  Shovels  are  laid  down  and  in- 
tervals taken  by  each  man  grasping  the  wrist  of  the 
man  on  his  left.  Each  man  then  drives  his  pick 
into  the  ground  on  the  line,  opposite  his  right  foot. 
The  interval  between  his  pick  and  that  upon  his  left 
(about  five  feet)  is  his  task. 

Reliefs  are  drawn  up  in  rear  of  the  line  at  a 
preliminary  signal  and  at  the  signal  for  changing, 
the  first  relief  lay  their  tools  upon  the  edge  of  the 
trench  and  step  out,  the  second  relief  taking  their 
places. 

Another  method  of  placing  men  upon  the  line  is 
practiced  in  the  British  service.  Tools  are  laid  out 
along  the  line,  which  may  or  may  not  be  traced  out. 
The  officer  paces  oif  the  line,  posting  a  man  at  each 
two  paces.  The  men  then  count  off  by  six  or  eight, 
depending  upon  the  proposed  distance  between  tra- 
verses. Numbers  one  and  eight  step  two  paces  to  the 
rear  and  dig  around  the  traverses.  This  method 
is  said  to  be  particularly  satisfactory  for  night 
work. 

-  While  the  trenches  are  under  construction,  a  party 
under  the  supervision  of  engineer  soldiers  proceeds 
to  clear  the  foreground. 

Selection  of  Camp  Sites.  When  organizations  are 
to  go  into  camp,  usually  in  brigade  units,  the  division 
engineer,  from  the  map,  selects  a  camp  site  and  an 
alternate  site.  The  engineer  officer  with  the  brigade 
examines  the  location,  and  consults  with  the  medical 
officer  as  to  the  quality  of  water.     If  not  satisfac- 


290  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

tory,  he  will  make  an  examination  of  the  alternate 
site. 

The  division  engineer  and  the  surgeon  inspect  the 
site  finally  selected,  and  may  condemn  it  if  unsatis- 
factory. When  finally  approved  the  can\p  is  staked 
out  as  described  in  Chapter  XVIII.  (See  Fig.  123). 
A  sketch  should  be  prepared  for  each  arriving  organi- 
zation showing  the  layout,  together  with  its  position 
among  other  units. 

The  engineer  officer  then  causes  to  be  marked  with 
sign  boards  the  places  for  obtaining  water  for  drink- 
ing and  cooking,  watering  animals,  bathing  and  wash- 
ing clothes. 

Communications,  The  brigade  engineer  ascertains 
where  new  roads  or  bridges,  or  repairs  to  existing 
ones,  are  required  to  facilitate  communications,  and 
reports  the  same  to  the  division  engineer.  Upon  re- 
ceiving authority  to  proceed  with  the  work  he  organ- 
izes his  forces  and  requests  the  necessary  details 
from  the  infantry. 

The  engineer  officer  details  officers  and  men  to  im- 
prove roads,  bridges  and  water  supply,  assisted  by 
working  parties  from  the  infantry. 

If  a  camp  is  intended  for  long  occupation,  the 
engineer  officer  will  design  shelters  for  the  men,  tak- 
ing into  account  the  material  available.  The  Engi- 
neers collect  what  can  be  found,  and  requisition  is 
made  upon  the  quartermaster  for  the  remainder. 
The  Engineers  instruct  the  other  troops  in  the  con- 
struction of  these  shelters. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
SANITATION. 

Camp  sanitation  is  largely  a  matter  of  engineering, 
coupled  with  discipline.  The  health  of  a  command  is 
preserved,  and  its  fighting  strength  maintained,  by: 

First,  excluding  from  the  service  the  physically 
unfit  and  those  predisposed  to  disease. 

Second,  by  the  exercise  of  surgical  and  medical 
skill  in  promptly  restoring  to  duty  the  wounded  and 
sick. 

Third,  and  by  far  the  most  important,  preventive 
measures,  consisting  of : 

(a)  The  various  vaccinations,  innoculations  and 
prophylactic  treatments  tending  to  increase  indi- 
vidual powers  of  resistance  to  disease  or  to  prevent 
the  development  of  disease  after  infection. 

(b)  Camp  sanitation,  or  measures  taken  to  se- 
cure healthy  living  conditions  in  camp. 

Of  these,  all  are  the  special  province  of  the  Medical 
Corps,  except  (b)  under  the  third  heading,  which  is 
sanitary  engineering  applied  to  camp  conditions, 
under  the  supervision  of  and  subject  to  inspection 
by  officers  of  the  Medical  Corps. 

The  engineering  problems  connected  with  camp 
sanitation  comprise: 

1.  The  selection  and  laying  out  of  camp  sites,  or 
castramentaUon. 

2.  Water  supply. 

3.  Drainage. 

4.  Disposal  of  refuse. 

(a)  Animal  wastes. 

(b)  Garbage. 

(c)  Rubbish. 

291 


292  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


THE    SELECTION    AND   LAYING    OUT    OF    THE    CAMP    SITE. 

The  considerations  for  a  good  camp  site  are  many 
and  are  seldom  obtainable  in  any  one  location.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Field  Service  Regulations,  U.  S.  Army, 
they  are  as  follows: 

First,  good  drainage. 

Second,  sufficient  space  to  accommodate  the  troops 
without  crowding. 

Third,  an  abundant  supply  of  good  water. 

Fourth,  good  communications  to  and  through  the 
camp. 

These  considerations  usually  require  a  slightly 
sloping  plain  with  sandy  or  gravelly  subsoil,  covered 
by  closely  cropped  turf.  In  hot  weather  shade  is 
desirable,  and  in  winter  a  southern  slope,  with  woods 
to  break  the  north  winds.  The  high  bank  of  a  river, 
if  not  in  the  vicinity  of  marshes,  is  a  favorable  loca- 
tion. 

Old  camp  grounds,  the  vicinity  of  cemeteries,  dense 
forests  and  undergrowth,  made  ground,  depressions, 
ravines,  etc.,  are  to  be  avoided.  Ground  at  the  foot 
of  a  slope  is  usually  damp  and  therefore  unfavorable, 
and  swamps  or  stagnant  water  in  the  neighborhood 
will  breed  mosquitoes. 

In  laying  out  the  camp  it  is  desirable  to  arrange 
the  communications  so  that  troops  will  not  have  to 
pass  though  the  camp  grounds  of  another  organiza- 
tion to  reach  their  own. 

In  the  presence  of  the  enemy,  tactical  considera- 
tions often  govern,  and  troops  may  be  forced  to  camp 
in  unsuitable  locations.  In  such  cases  the  best  should 
be  made  of  unfavorable  conditions,  and  everything 
possible  done  to  offset  them. 

When  a  camp  is  designed  for  continuous  occupancy, 
however,  the  preparation  of  the  site  becomes  a  prob- 
lem in  municipal  and  sanitary  engineering. 


SANITATION 


293 


Fig.  123  shows  the  typical  layout  for  the  camp  of  a 
regiment  of  infantry.  Those  for  other  troops  are 
similar,  except  that  space  for  picket  lines,  gun  parks, 


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FIG.    123.      CAMP    OF    A    REGIMENT    OF    INFANTRY. 


etc.,  are  provided  at  the  lower  ends  of  the  company 
streets,  in  prolongation  of  the  lines  of  tents,  for 
mounted  troops,  artillery,  etc.     In  laying  out  such 


294  PREPAREDNESS   AND    THE   ENGINEER 

a  camp,  it  is  usually  sufficient  to  mark  by  a  stake 
the  head  of  each  company  street,  headquarters,  offi- 
cers' messes,  company  officers'  line,  field  officers'  line, 
and  the  lines  of  latrines,  leaving  to  the  organizations 
pitching  camp  the  spacing  of  their  tents  in  parallel 
rows.  In  an  emergency,  and  for  temporary  occupa- 
tion, the  camp  of  a  regiment  of  infantry  may  be  con- 
tracted to  a  space  160  yards  by  180  yards,  covering 
6.2  acres. 

A  large  camp  is  a  collection  of  regimental  camps, 
with  the  auxiliary  troops  fitted  in  wherever  they  may 
find  space.  A  good  arrangement  is  side  by  side,  the 
officers'  street  continuous  through  the  several  organi- 
zations, with  roads  separating  the  regimental  units. 
Where  more  than  one  row  is  required,  the  camps 
should  be  placed  back  to  back,  i.e.,  stables  and  train 
parks  of  one  row  adjoining  those  of  another,  or  the 
officers'  rows  adjoining.  The  foot  of  one  regimental 
camp  should  not  be  placed  adjacent  to  the  officers' 
quarters  of  another.  Such  an  arrangement  would 
bring  the  stables,  etc.,  of  the  one  organization  too 
near  the  kitchens  of  the  other,  besides  the  incon- 
venience to  the  officers  concerned.  The  main  high- 
ways of  the  camp  are  ordinarily  located  between  the 
rows  of  regimental  camps. 

It  is  seldom  that  a  level  area  large  enough  to 
accommodate  the  camps  of  the  various  organizations 
in  regular  order  is  available,  and  the  camp  must  be 
fitted  to  the  ground,  due  attention  being  given  to  pre- 
serving the  integrity  of  brigades,  etc. 

Once  occupied,  a  camp  is  continually  being  im- 
proved by  the  troops;  officers'  and  company  streets 
are  crowned,  curbs  and  gutters  formed,  drainage  pro- 
vided, gutters  bridged,  streets  oiled,  etc. 


SANITATION  295 

WATER  SUPPLY. 

Sources, 

City  Water  Supplies.  The  simplest  solution  of 
the  water  supply  problem  in  a  permanent  camp  is  a 
connection  with  the  mains  of  a  neighboring  city. 
For  many  reasons,  however,  large  camps  are  not 
usually  located  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  large 
cities,  and  the  water  systems  of  the  smaller  towns  are 
generally  unequal  to  the  increased  drain  upon  their 
supply.  In  case  such  a  plan  can  be  carried  out,  care 
must  be  taken  to  connect  with  the  main  feed  system 
of  the  town  and  not  with  small  outlying  branches, 
incapable  of  supplying  the  camp. 

Streams  and  Lakes,  The  ideal  source  of  this  char- 
acter is  a  mountain  stream,  whose,  water  is  cool  and 
pure,  and  whose  course  includes  *a  good  site  for  a 
reservoir,  located  at  a  sufficient  elevation  to  permit 
of  gravity  distribution.  A  lake  forms  a  natural 
reservoir,  whose  storage  capacity  is  usually  above  all 
possible  demands  of  the  camp. 

A  country  whose  topography  favors  the  construc- 
tion of  reservoirs  and  gravity  systems  of  supply,  how- 
ever, will  seldom  afford  sufficient  level  ground  upon 
which  to  locate  a  large  encampment,  except  at  the 
cost  of  a  long  supply  line.  The  usual  method  of 
procedure,  therefore,  will  be  to  pump  the  water  re- 
quired and  to  erect  tanks  upon  the  highest  available 
ground,  preferably  in  a  central  location,  for  gravity 
distribution. 

Surface  water  is  usually  open  to  suspicion,  unless 
the  source  be  thoroughly  inspected  and  no  actual  or 
potential  source  of  pollution  be  found  to  exist.  How- 
ever, the  methods  of  disinfection  of  water  by  chlorine 
and  by  the  hypochlorites  of  calcium  and  sodium,  in 
successful  use  for  a  number  of  years  in  civil  practice, 
are  now  being  adopted  for  military  use,  and  almost 


296  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

any  water,  unless  actually  containing  raw  sewage, 
may  be  made  safe  for  drinking  by  the  installation  of 
a  chlorination  plant. 

Wells,  Drilled  or  driven  wells,  especially  those  of 
some  depth,  are  the  most  satisfactory  source  of  sup- 
ply. The  water  is  usually  of  better  quality,  is  cooler, 
and  is  not  so  liable  to  accidental  pollution  as  surface 
water.  "Where  time  permits  the  driving  of  wells  and 
a  sufficient  supply  may  be  obtained  in  this  manner, 
the  results  will  more  than  justify  the  additional  ex- 
pense and  the  increased  amount  of  pumping. 

Pumping. 

The  most  satisfactory  system  is  by  gasoline 
engines,  on  account  of  their  portability,  availability 
of  fuel,  and  ease  of  operation.  The  duty  is  not  con- 
stant, as  there  is  no  use  of  water  at  night,  and  the 
draft  is  concentrated  in  well  defined  periods  during 
the  day.  The  preparation  of  each  meal,  watering  of 
animals,  morning  washing,  and  bathing  at  the  con- 
clusion of  afternoon  drill  cause  the  heaviest  drafts. 
As  the  morning  washing  and  watering  of  animals  co- 
incide with  the  preparations  for  breakfast,  and  after- 
noon bathing  and  watering  with  those  for  supper,  it 
may  be  considered  that  the  three  mess  periods  con- 
stitute the  times  of  greatest  draft. 

Practically  all  the  water  used,  therefore,  is  between 
four  A.M.  and  eight  P.M.  About  50%  of  this  is 
concentrated  between  four  P.  M.  and  seven  P.  M., 
and  25%  between  five  A.  M.  and  seven  A.  M.  The 
tanks,  therefore,  should  be  capable  of  storing  an 
amount  equal  to  50%  of  the  total  daily  supply,  or 
12-15  gallons  per  man  and  6-8  gallons  per  animal. 
These  tanks  should  be  entirely  full  by  four  P.  M. 
and  again  by  four  A.  M.  The  pumping  might  well 
be  limited  to  two  periods,  therefore:  the  early  aftei*- 
noon  and  the  late  evening. 


SANITATION  297 

The  pumping  plant  should  be  in  two  or  more  units, 
in  case  one  should  break  down.  It  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary to  have  a  reserve  pumping  capacity,  as  a  break- 
down is  not  liable  to  prove  of  long  duration,  and  the 
use  of  water .  is  entirely  under  military  control,  in- 
suring a  supply  for  the  most  important  uses,  even  if 
the  total  supply  is  somewhat  restricted. 

Distribution. 

The  camp  should  be  laid  out  so  as  to 
facilitate  as  much  as  possible  the  distribution,  by 
avoiding  long  lines  between  units.  The  piping  system 
for  a  regiment  of  infantry,  as  shown  in  Fig.  123, 
is  practically  standard,  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
main  feeders  for  a  regularly  laid  out  camp  does  not 
present  any  difficulties.  The  usual  error  is  to  make 
them  too  small.  Valves  should  be  placed  at  the  en- 
trance to  each  camp  and  on  all  mains  just  beyond 
each  regimental  branch,  so  as  to  permit  the  supply 
of  as  many  organizations  as  possible  while  a  section 
of  the  main  is  undergoing  repairs.  A  loop  system  is 
desirable  if  permitted  by  the  ground  plan  of  the 
camp,  as  then  a  break  in  the  main  will  necessitate 
cutting  off  the  water  from  only  one  or  two  camps. 

For  the  camp  of  a  regiment  of  infantry  at  war 
strength,  about  20  taps  are  required,  one  for  each 
mess,  one  for  the  corral,  and  one  for  the  commanding 
officer.  The  main  feed  pipe  should  not  be  less  than 
2%  inches;  reducing  to  2  inches  after  the  bath  and 
corral  lines  have  been  taken  off ;  to  1%  inches  at  the 
end  of  the  first  battalion,  and  to  1^/4  inches  at  the  end 
of  the  second.  Lines  supplying  a  single  tap  are  % 
inches.  The  officers'  bath  should  be  provided  with 
about  four  shower  heads  and  that  of  the  men  with 
about  forty. 

Few  military  organizations  will  be  found  which  do 
not  contain  some  men  with  a  practical  knowledge  of 


298  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

steam  fitting  or  plumbing.  Certainly  no  engineer 
troops  will  be  without  such  men.  These  can  instruct 
others  detailed  as  helpers,  and  the  whole  command 
will  soon  be  able  to  put  in  pipe  at  an  almost  un- 
believable rate. 

In  June,  1915,  at  Fishkill  Plains,  N.  Y.,  in  prepara- 
tion for  a  re-enforced  brigade  encampment,  two  offi- 
cers of  the  22nd  N.  Y.  Engineers  and  fourteen  men, 
in  eleven  days,  laid  two  miles  of  pipe,  varying  in  size 
from  4-inch  to  %-inch,  erected  two  tanks  of  15,000 
gallons  capacity  each  and  one  smaller,  installed  105 
hydrants,  three  pumps  and  engines,  and  twelve  bath 
houses,  totaling  108  shower  heads. 

On  June  20,  1916,  Camp  Whitman,  Greenhaven, 
N.  Y.,  was  occupied  by  the  22nd  N.  Y.  Engineers, 
with  instructions  to  construct  a  system  of  water  sup- 
ply so  as  to  permit  the  mobilization  of  20,000  troops 
at  this  point.  In  preparation  for  a  summer  encamp- 
ment, a  survey  had  been  made  and  a  tentative  lay- 
out prepared  for  a  distribution  system,  but  the  ma- 
terial was  just  commencing  to  arrive,  and  no  work 
had  been  done.  The  two  battalions  were  put  at  the 
work  on  June  21st,  and  a  contractor  began  drilling 
the  wells.  On  June  25th  the  1st  Battalion  was  taken 
off  to  prepare  for  immediate  transfer  to  the  Mexican 
Border.  The  2nd  Battalion  continued  alone,  and  by 
June  29th  a  50,000-gallon  tank  had  been  erected  upon 
concrete  foundations,  a  pumping  plant  installed,  and 
water  supplied  to  ten  camp  sites,  through  a  six-inch 
main  loop  and  various  branches.  By  that  time  every 
man  in  the  organization  could  lay  pipe. 

Pipes  for  a  camp  should  be  covered,  as  they  are 
then  better  protected  from  injury,  and  the  water  is 
kept  cooler,  which  prevents  much  waste  in  running 
water  from  the  taps  to  obtain  a  cool  drink.  It  is 
usually  not  necessary  to  dig  a  trench,  unless  the 
camp  is  to  be  occupied  in  freezing  weather.     Ordi- 


SANITATION  299 

narily  the  pipes  may  be  laid  in  a  plowed  fnrrow  and 
the  earth  raked  back  upon  them.  For  ease  in  assem- 
bling, the  pipe  may  be  laid  flat  upon  the  ground,  and 
each  organization  required  to  cover  its  own  pipes  and 
the  mains  half  way  to  the  adjoining  branches. 
Hydrants  are  usually  provided  with  self-closing  fau- 
cets, to  prevent  waste,  but  their  utility  is  doubtful. 
There  is  no  type  yet  invented  that  cannot  be  tied, 
wedged,  or  otherwise  held  open  when  the  soldier  so 
desires,  and  as  the  use  of  water  is  under  full  military 
control,  cases  of  faucets  left  running  are  not  fre- 
quent. In  the  showers,  weights  are  tied  upon  the 
levers  of  self-closing  cocks,  bending  them  and  eventu- 
ally breaking  them  off  and  rendering  the  shower  un- 
serviceable. A  plain  stop  cock  with  a  lever  handle  is 
cheaper,  more  serviceable,  and  would  result  in  little 
more  waste  of  water.  Bathing  may  be  restricted  to 
certain  hours  and  a  guard  placed  to  see  that  the  water 
is  turned  off  after  using,  if  it  is  thought  that  too 
much  water  is  being  used. 

Valves  should  be  covered  by  boxes  with  padlocked 
lids,  to  prevent  malicious  or  mischievous  interference. 
Sometimes  the  hand  wheels  are  removed  to  accom- 
plish this  purpose,  but  they  cannot  be  carried  around 
as  can  a  key,  are  never  at  hand  when  wanted,  and 
a  monkey-wrench  is  used  on  the  stems,  deforming 
them  until  the  wheel  cannot  be  used. 

Water  Supply  in  Campaign. 

With  troops  upon  the  move,  camp  sites  are  selected 
in  advance  of  their  arrival,  and  such  selection  is  in- 
fluenced largely  by  the  available  water  supply,  as  to 
both  quality  and  quantity. 

Surface  water  will  nearly  always  supply  such 
camps,  except  where  good  springs  or  wells  are  avail- 
able.    The  first  duty  of  an  organization  arriving  in 


300  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE,  ENGINEER 

camp  is  to  post  a  guard  over  the  water  supply,  to 
enforce  its  proper  use.  If  a  stream,  places  are  desig- 
nated and  marked,  reading  downstream  in  the  order 
named,  for  obtaining  drinking  and  cooking  water, 
watering  animals,  bathing,  and  washing  clothes. 

A  spring  may  be  enlarged  by  digging  or  by  blast- 
ing, if  in  hard  ground  or  rock,  and  protected  from 
surface  drainage  by  a  curb  of  stones  and  clay. 

Cooking  water  may  be  used  directly  from  the 
stream  if  clean,  as  the  heat  will  usually  kill  all 
pathogenic  germs.  Drinking  water,  however,  should 
not  be  so  used  unless  of  known  purity.  Where  its 
character  is  the  least  in  doubt,  it  should  be  made  safe 
by  sterilization.  The  method  formerly  employed  for 
accomplishing  this  was  by  boiling.  This  could  not 
always  be  enforced,  owing  to  the  time  and  fuel  re- 
quired, the  difficulty  of  cooling  the  water  afterwards, 
and  the  flat,  insipid  taste  of  the  boiled  water. 

The  chlorination  method  of  sterilization  has  been 
adopted  in  the  Army,  and  simplifies  the  problem 
greatly.  The  liquid  chlorine  treatment,  though  prob- 
ably the  most  efficient,  is  not  adapted  to  military  field 
use  on  account  of  the  apparatus  required.  Of  the 
hypochlorites,  that  of  sodium,  in  liquid  form,  is  more 
efficient  for  its  bulk,  but  that  of  calcium  (bleaching 
powder,  is  ordinarily  the  more  readily  obtainable. 
The  latter,  however,  when  loose  or  packed  in  card- 
board, loses  its  strength  very  rapidly.  It  is  best  kept 
by  making  up  and  bottling  a  strong  stock  solution. 

The  strength  used  in  sterilizing  municipal  sup- 
plies is  0.2  parts  per  million,  that  in  the  field  about 
ten  times  as  great,  or  2.0  parts  per  million.  In  the 
former  case  fresh  powder,  from  air-tight  drums,  is 
usually  available,  the  mixing  is  more  thorough,  and 
the  distribution  more  carefully  regulated.  Usually, 
also  the  water  has  been  partially  purified  by  sedi- 
mentation in  a  reservoir.    In  such  cases,  twenty  min- 


SANITATION  301 

utes  is  supposed  to  render  the  water  safe  for  drink- 
ing. 

For  field  use,  a  level  teaspoonful  of  calcium  hypo- 
chlorite (chloride  of  lime)  is  dissolved  in  two  quarts 
of  water  for  a  stock  solution.  One  teaspoonful  of 
this  solution  is  added  to  a  gallon  of  water,  or  ten 
tablespoonfuls  to  a  barrel.  The  water  is  considered 
safe  to  use  after  standing  for  thirty  minutes. 

A  sterilizing  bag,  of  linen  fabric,  holding  about 
forty  gallons  of  water,  is  issued  to  troops  in  the  field. 
As  the  chemical  acts  better  in  clear  water,  a  filter 
cloth  is  provided  to  strain  it  in  filling  the  bag.  The 
sterilizing  medium  is  calcium  hypochlorite,  sealed  in 
glass  tubes,  which  are  marked  with  a  file  to  facilitate 
breaking  them  without  fragments.  They  each  contain 
about  15  grains  of  the  chemical,  which  gives  a  propor- 
tion of  2.0  parts  per  million,  sufficient  to  destroy 
germ  life  in  even  highly  infected,  though  not  in  sew- 
age polluted,  waters. 

The  bag  is  covered  to  keep  out  dust,  and  the  water 
is  cooled  by  the  evaporation  of  the  moisture  which 
exudes  through  the  fabric.  Water  is  drawn  off 
through  small  self-closing  faucets  set  in  a  circle 
around  the  bag,  slightly  above  the  bottom. 

DRAINAGE. 

A  camp  site  requiring  extensive  drainage  opera- 
tions to  make  it  habitable  should  not  be  adopted,  as 
even  when  drained  it  will  remain  damp  for  a  long 
time.  Occasionally,  however,  sites  are  found  which 
are  otherwise  favorable,  but  upon  which  water  may 
be  inclined  to  stand  after  a  heavy  rain.  A  simple 
system  of  ditches,  constructed  by  the  troops  them- 
selves, will  usually  remedy  this  defect.  The  camp 
should  never  be  sited  upon  the  lowest  ground  in  a 
neighborhood,  even  if  perfectly  dry,  as  drainage  dur- 
ing and  after  rains  will  then  be  very  difficult. 


302  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

The  interior  drainage  of  the  camp  is  taken  care  of 
by  gutters  along  the  company  streets,  and  hy  crown- 
ing the  latter  to  avoid  puddles  and  mudholes. 
Ditches  are  dug  around  the  tents,  directly  under  the 
canvas  walls,  with  the  earth  banked  up  inside  the  tent. 
These  ditches  connect  with  the  street  gutters.  The 
ground  under  picket  lines  is  crowned  and  gutters 
dug,  leading  to  lower  ground ;  otherwise,  this  ground 
would  become  very  muddy  in  wet  weather. 

DISPOSAL   OF   REFUSE. 

An  important  consideration  in  the  sanitation  of 
a  camp  lies  in  the  prompt  removal  or  final  disposal 
of  the  refuse  resulting  from  its  occupation  by  large 
numbers  of  men  and  animals.  This  refuse  is  in  three 
classes,  each  requiring  different  treatment.  In  the 
order  of  their  importance,  these  are: 

1.  Animal  wastes. 

2.  Garbage. 

3.  Rubbish. 

Animal  Wastes, 

The  most  dangerous  to  the  health  of  the  camp  are 
the  wastes  of  the  human  body,  and  naturally  the 
greatest  precautions  must  be  taken  to  see  that  these 
are  finally  disposed  of  in  a  manner  which  will  effec- 
tually prevent  their  ever  becoming  a  source  of  infec- 
tion or  nuisance. 

Disposal  of  Excreta.  Where  a  system  of  water 
carriage  can  be  installed,  this  method  is  of  course 
the  most  desirable.  Its  layout  and  operation  will  dif- 
fer little  from  ordinary  municipal  practice.  Such 
a  system  will  be  quite  a  tax  upon  the  water  supply 
of  the  camp,  as  well  as  a  considerable  additional 
expense,  and  may  require  treatment  works  if  the  dis- 
charge is  into  an  inland  river.     In  tidal  estuaries  or 


SANITATION  303 

waters   not   used   for   public    supplies,   these   works 
would  not  be  necessary. 

Where  the  cost  would  be  prohibitive,  therefore,  or 
where  the  water  supply  is  insufficient  for  water  car- 
riage, other  systems  must  be  adopted.  Various  sys- 
tems of  dry  sewerage,  as  the  pail  system,  have  been 
advocated  and  used  to  a  considerable  extent,  but  are 
open  to  many  objections,  the  principal  one  of  which 
is  the  hauling  or  carrying  of  this  matter  through  the 
camp.  The  ground  about  the  pails  becomes  much 
polluted,  accidents  happen  in  removing  them,  caus- 
ing pollution  of  the  ground  within  the  camp,  and  the 
final  disposal  is  always  a  matter  of  much  difficulty. 

Burial,  dumping  into  water,  and  incineration  have 
all  been  tried  and  none  found  entirely  satisfactory. 
The  pollution  of  water  supplies  and  the  creation  of 
a  breeding  place  for  flies  are  the  main  objections. 
Incineration  usually  creates  an  odor,  which,  while 
probably  not  a  menace  to  health,  is  distinctly  dis- 
agreeable when  carried  to  camp. 

The  most  satisfactory  method  has  been  dumping 
into  large  pits,  the  deposits  being  covered  with  crude 
oil.  This  prevents  odor  and  keeps  flies  out.  The 
problem  of  cartage  through  the  camp,  however,  and 
of  cleaning  the  pails,  has  not  been  satisfactorily 
solved,  and  leads  naturally  to  an  inquiry  as  to  the 
possibility  of  making  the  place  of  deposit  the  place - 
of  final  disposal. 

The  problem  is  to  avoid  a  nuisance,  prevent  flies, 
and  to  insure  a  permanent  disposal,  without  danger 
to  health.  Various  combined  latrines  and  incinera- 
tors have  been  devised  to  meet  this  problem,  and  most 
of  them  work  very  well.  They  are  very  bulky  to 
transport,  however,  most  of  them  require  considerable 
care  in  setting,  all  require  constant  attention  in  opera- 
tion, and  the  resulting  odors  in  camp  are  far  from 
pleasant. 


304  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

The  proper  use  of  the  pit  latrine  system  seems  to 
solve  the  problem  about  as  well  as  any  other  method. 
In  temporary  camps,  especially  those  of  one  night's 
duration,  straddle  trenches,  about  two  feet  deep,  one 
foot  wide  and  as  long  as  may  be  required,  are  con- 
structed upon  arrival  in  camp.  To  insure  their 
proper  use,  a  shovel  is  provided  and  a  guard  placed 
to  see  that  all  deposits  are  immediately  covered  by 
earth.  Such  trenches  are  filled  in  when  the  deposits 
are  within  a  foot  of  the  surface,  and  their  location 
marked,  usually  by  a  large  L  formed  of  stones.  The 
nitrifying  power  of  the  earth  near  the  surface  is 
well  known,  and  will  eventually  change  the  excreta 
into  a  harmless  substance  resembling  garden  mould, 
so  that  this  constitutes  a  true  method  of  disposal, 
free  from  nuisance  or  danger*  to  health. 

In  more  permanent  camps,  more  elaborate  methods 
of  keeping  out  flies  are  used,  and  the  dry  earth  cov- 
ering, which  tends  to  fill  the  latrine  too  quickly,  may 
be  discarded.  The  Eavard  hox,  which  fits  closely  to 
the  ground,  stands  about  twenty  inches  high,  and  con- 
tains seats  with  self-closing  lids,  is  placed  over  a 
pit  about  six  to  eight  feet  deep,  two  feet  wide  and 
nearly  as  long  as  the  box.  The  lids  must  be  hinged 
to  prevent  displacement,  but  a  chock  or  wedge  at 
their  back  to  prevent  their  opening  to  a  vertical  posi- 
•tion  is  a  more  serviceable  device  to  insure  their  clos- 
ing than  spring  hinges,  which  break  easily.  These 
boxes  may  be  made  by  the  organizations  using  them, 
from  lumber  furnished  by  the  quartermaster.  Im- 
portant accessories  are  a  footboard  in  front,  to  pre- 
vent caving  in  the  front  wall  of  the  pit;  urine  de- 
flectors, which  are  pieces  of  tin  (usually  from  cans 
rolled  out  straight),  nailed  by  the  upper  edges  to  the 
inside  of  the  box  in  front  of  each  seat,  and  bent  into 
a  trough  so  as  to  deflect  into  the  pit  urine  which 
would  otherwise  stain  the  inside  of  the  box;  and  a 


SANITATION  305 

urinal  funnel  at  one  or  both  ends  of  the  box.  This 
latter  may  be  of  galvanized  iron,  or  extemporized 
of  tin  or  tarred  paper,  and  leads  into  the  pit  under 
the  edge  of  the  box.  About  ten  seats  should  be  pro- 
vided for  a  company  latrine. 

The  tight  box  was  formerly  relied  upon  to  keep 
out  flies  and  to  darken  the  pit  so  as  to  discourage 
their  entering  it,  but  as  an  additional  precaution,  the 
box  was  lifted  off  each  day  and  the  pit  burned  out 
by  straw  and  crude  oil.  Upon  the  recommendation  of 
one  of  the  regimental  surgeons  of  the  New  York  Divi- 
sion on  the  Mexican  Border,  in  1916,  a  new  method 
was  tried  out  with  excellent  results. 

A  thick  mixture  of  lamp  black  and  crude  oil  or 
kerosene  was  prepared  and  sent  around  daily  to  the 
various  camps.  The  mixture  was  carried  in  a  barrel 
mounted  upon  wheels  and  provided  with  a  pump  and . 
a  length  of  hose.  This  cart  was  driven  up  to  each 
latrine,  the  contents  covered  with  a  layer  of  the  lamp 
black  and  oil,  and  the  urinal  funnels  painted 
inside  with  the  same  preparation.  The  result  was 
a  complete  absence  of  odor  and  flies,  and  of  the 
necessity  of  disturbing  the  box  for  burning  out  the 
pit. 

Such  a  latrine  will  serve  a  company  for  about  three 
months.  When  filled  to  within  two  feet  of  the  sur- 
face, it  should  be  filled  in  and  marked,  and  the  box 
moved  to  a  new  pit. 

Waste  water  from  the  showers  and  from  washing 
clothes  will  run  off  and  gradually  be  absorbed  if  the 
ground  slope  away  from  the  camp.  If  allowed  to 
collect  in  puddles  it  will  breed  mosquitoes.  Ground 
upon  which  soapy  water  is  repeatedly  thrown  will 
become  foul  and  ill  smelling.  A  drainage  ditch  may 
be  dug  from  the  bath  to  a  soakage  pit  filled  with 
stones,  from  which  absorption  will  be  more  rapid 
than  from  the  surface.    When  the  walls  of  the  pit  be- 


306  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

come  clogged  with  particles  of  soap,  it  may  be  filled 
in  and  a  new  one  provided. 

Disposal  of  Manure,  Where  large  bodies  of  troops 
are  congregated  manure  collects  in  such  quantities 
that  its  disposal  becomes  a  matter  attended  with  great 
difficulty. 

The  sanitary  regulations  prescribe  that  the  ground 
at  all  picket  lines  shall  be  swept  daily  and  burned 
oif  weekly  with  crude  oil.  This  keeps  the  ground  in 
very  good  condition.  It  is  further  specified  that  all 
straw  and  manure  be  hauled  away  daily  to  the  camp 
dump.  This  should  be  a  mile  or  two  to  leeward 
of  the  camp,  considering  the  prevailing  winds.  Such 
swarms  of  flies  always  appear  in  these  dumps,  how- 
ever, that  the  camp  is  almost  certain  to  be  invaded. 
Burning  will  prevent  breeding  of  flies,  but  the  odor 
from  the  smouldering  manure  is  very  disagreeable, 
and  carries  for  a  long  distance.  Unless  there  is  a 
steady,  favorable  wind,  there  will  be  a  nuisance  in 
camp  from  the  smoke.  Crude  oil  sprinkled  over  piles 
of  manure  will  keep  flies  away,  and  thus  prevent  their 
laying  eggs  in  it,  but  it  will  not  destroy  eggs  already 
laid  nor  the  larvae  that  hatch  from  them. 

After  the  New  York  Division  had  been  for  several 
months  upon  the  Mexican  Border,  the  neighboring 
farmers  began  to  awake  to  the  enormous  fertilizing 
value  going  to  waste  with  the  manure,  and  to  haul  it 
away  for  use  on  their  fields.  This,  apparently,  is 
the  true  solution  of  the  problem.  In  an  agricultural 
country,  the  farmers  will  generally  be  glad  to  take 
the  manure  if  their  attention  is  called  to  its  avail- 
ability. The  writer  is  aware  of  one  case  in  which  a 
farmer  rented  his  land  for  a  National  Guard  encamp- 
ment at  a  merely  nominal  fee,  upon  the  condition 
that  all  the  manure  should  be  left  upon  his  fields. 


SANITATION 


307 


Garbage, 

Kitchen  wastes  are  always  great  with  raw  troops. 
Too  much  food  is  prepared  by  inexperienced  cooks, 
and  is  often  of  such  unpalatable  quality  that  much 
of  it  is  left  upon  the  mess  pans.  An  excess  of  water, 
also,  is  used  by  the  kitchen  police  in  cleaning  utensils, 
all  of  which  must  be  disposed  of  without  nuisance. 


FIG.   124.      STONE  PIT   KITCHEN   CREMATORY. 


Kitchen  water  may  be  allowed  to  drain  into  a  soak- 
age  pit  as  described  for  bath  water,  provided  it  be 
first  strained  through  about  a  six-inch  layer  of  straw, 
which  should  be  burned  and  renewed  daily  or  oftener. 
This  prevents  the  choking  and  fouling  of  the  pit  by 
particles  of  grease,  soap  and  other  organic  matter. 


S08  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

A  better  method  is  by  evaporation.  A  kitchen 
crematory,  constructed  and  operated  properly,  should 
destroy  the  garbage  of  an  entire  company  with  little 
difficulty.  Where  stones  are  plentiful,  an  incinerator 
of  the  type  shown  in  Fig.  124  is  constructed.  A 
wood  fire  is  kept  burning  on  the  stones,  and  the  lat- 
ter, especially  those  forming  the  wall  or  curb,  become 
heated  sufficiently  to  evaporate  liquid  wastes  if  ap- 
plied gradually.  It  is  said  that  this  device,  with  a 
skilled  attendant,  can  evaporate  100  gallons  of  liquid 
and  incinerate  23  cubic  feet  of  solid  garbage  in  12 
hours,  using  one-sixth  of  a  cord  of  wood.  The  solid 
matter  is  placed  directly  upon  the  fire  and  the  liquids 
poured  slowly  upon  the  heated  stones  at  the  sides. 
In  the  ordinary  way  of  using,  too  much  water  is  ap- 
plied at  once,  and  much  of  it  runs  down  through  the 
stones  into  the  bottom  of  the  pit,  which,  however,  is 
not  very  objectionable  if  the  ground  will  absorb  it 
without  becoming  water-logged. 

Where  stones  are  not  to  be  had,  an  incinerator  of 
the  type  shown  in  Fig.  125  is  built  of  brick  furnished 
by  the  quartermaster.  The  original  plans  for  this 
incinerator,  as  issued  to  the  troops,  provided  for  no 
fire  grate,  and  the  fire  was  built  directly  upon  the 
ground  under  the  evaporating  pan,  often  being  nearly 
smothered  in  ashes.  Many  organizations  began  to 
make  improvements  upon  the  type  plan,  and  one  of 
the  first  of  these  was  a  fire  grate  to  lift  the  fire  out 
of  the  ashes.  This  lessened  the  consumption  of  fire 
wood  and  increased  the  efficiency  of  the  incinerator. 
One  corporal  of  Engineers,  in  charge  of  the  construc- 
tion of  his  company  incinerator,  procured  an  extra 
flue  and  employed  it  to  secure  an  induced  draft,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  126.  The  funnel  had  a  lateral  swing 
of  nearly  180°,  and  could  be  set  to  catch  nearly  all 
the  prevailing  winds. 

In  the  writer's  company  the  type  shown  in  Fig.  127 


SANITATION 


309 


was  built.  The  heat  from  the  fire  arose  around  the 
lower  pan  and  came  into  contact  with  the  bottom  of 
the  upper  pan  on  its  way  to  the  flue.  Solid  garbage 
was  placed  on  the  grate  over  tlie  fire,  and  pushed 


FIG. 


BRICK  INCINERATOR 


through  into  the  fire  as  it  dried  in  the  heat.  Liquids 
were  poured  into  the  lower  pan  to  be  evaporated,  and 
clean  water  into  the  upper  pan  to  be  heated.  A  man 
wishing  hot  water  for  washing  or  shaving  could  take 
it  from  the  upper  pan,  replacing  it  with  an  equal 


310 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


^3fbley  Sfove 


Induced  Draft 


w 


FIG.  126.      INCINERATOR  WITH  INDUCED  DRAFT 


SANITATION  311 

amount  of  cool  water  from  the  tap.  The  upper  pan 
could  be  drained  for  scouring  by  pulling  out  the  plug. 
It  was  found  that  the  liquid  garbage  could  be  brought 
to  a  boil  in  forty  minutes  after  lighting  the  fire,  and 
the  whole  panful,  about  35  gallons,  could  be  evapo- 
rated in  three  hours.  The  wood  consumption  was  less 
than  the  allowance. 

The  principal  difficulty  with  evaporators  of  this 
type  lies  in  the  solid  garbage  which  finds  its  way  into 
the  pan  from  carelessness  or  as  a  product  of  the 
evaporation.  This  cakes  upon  the  bottom  of  the  pan, 
which,  when  no  longer  protected  by  contact  with  the 
liquid,  burns  through  and  becomes  unserviceable.  To 
avoid  this,  a  guard  may  be  placed  to  enforce  proper 
use  of  the  incinerator,  or  the  attendant  may  scrape 
the  bottom  of  the  pan  with  a  hoe  at  intervals.  One 
company  covered  the  pan  with  a  screen,  to  strain  the 
liquid  as  it  was  poured  in  and  to  intercept  particles 
of  solids. 

In  a  temporary  camp  construction  of  this  charac- 
ter is  impracticable,  and  garbage  cans  will  probably 
be  used.  Liquid  garbage  will  be  treated  as  described 
before,  and  the  solids  will  be  deposited  in  a  garbage 
can,  which  will  be  taken  away  daily  to  a  camp  incin- 
erator, dump,  pit  or  other  place  of  disposal.  These  cans 
should  be  kept  on  a  framework,  off  the  ground,  and 
must  be  tightly  covered.  When  returned  empty  they 
should  be  cleaned,  scalded  and  coated  with  crude  oil. 

For  a  camp  of  only  one  or  two  nights'  duration,  a 
garbage  pit  may  be  dug,  covered  closely,  with  an 
opening  foi  the  introduction  of  the  garbage,  both 
solid  and  liquid.  The  former  soaks  into  the  earth 
and  the  latter  is  covered  with  earth  when  the  pit  is 
filled  in  preparatory  to  leaving  camp.  A  lid  must  be 
provided  for  the  opening,  to  keep  out  flies,  and  as  an 
additional  precaution  the  garbage  may  be  kept  cov- 
ered with  crude  oil. 


312 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


Buhhish, 

Eubbish  will  accumulate  to  a  great  extent  about  a 
camp  if  not  properly  taken  care  of.  While  much  of 
it  is  of  a  character  not  dangerous  to  health,  it  is  al- 
ways unsightly,  and  is  liable  to  engender  habits  of 
carelessness  in  regard  to  more  dangerous  wastes  if 
neglected. 

Tin  cans  must  be  thoroughly  burned  out,  preferably 


i-3'0 


FIG.    128.       CAMP   INCINERATOR 


in  the  company  incinerators,  and  carefully  flattened 
before  being  taken  to  the  dump.  Otherwise  they  will 
hold  water  after  rains  and  provide  breeding  places 
for  mosquitoes.  Much  of  the  other  camp  rubbish  may 
be  destroyed  by  burning,  and  is  mostly  of  a  nature 
to  furnish  its  own  fuel.  "Waste  of  this  character,  and 
even  carcasses  of  animals,  may  be  destroyed  in  a  camp 
incinerator,  which  is  kept  burning  continuously,  with 
rubbish  for  fuel.  (Fig.  128.)  This  is  a  type,  circular 
in  plan  and  about  ten  feet  in  diameter,  which  has 
proved  very  satisfactory  in  use.  The  fire  is  started 
with  brush  or  fire  wood  and  kept  going  with  rubbish. 
The  central  cairn  acts  as  a  flue,  and  the  stones  be- 


SANITATION  313 

come  very  hot,  which  assists  greatly  in  destroying 
liquids  or  damp  substances. 

CAMP    DISEASES. 

Of  the  epidemic  diseases  which  formerly  decimated 
military  camps,  most  are  now  well  understood  as  to 
cause  and  manner  of  prevention  and  may  be  said 
to  be  fairly  under  control.  They  may  be  classified 
into  a  number  of  well  defined  groups,  according  to 
the  manner  of  infection. 

Typhoid  fever,  Paratyphoid  A  &  B,  Cholera,  and 
Dysentery  are  all  caused  by  the  introduction  of  in- 
fected food  or  drink  into  the  alimentary  canal.  The 
fly  is  the  principal  agent  in  polluting  food  supplies. 
The  preventive  measures  are: 

1.  Unremitting  warfare  on  the  fly,  by  destruc- 
tion of  his  breeding  places,  by  trapping  him  in 
kitchens  and  mess  shacks  and  preventing  his  access 
to  all  food. 

2.  Protection  of  food  and  water  from  dust. 

3.  Use  of  boiled  or  sterilized  water  only  for 
drinking. 

4.  Destruction  of  all  refuse. 

5.  Avoidance  of  unauthorized  sources  of  food  or 
drink. 

Innoculation  against  typhoid  and  paratyphoid  has 
proved  very  successful,  and  has  practically  eradicated 
the  former  from  army  camps.  The  latter  is  of  com- 
paratively recent  origin,  and  its  results  are  not  so  well 
known.  Both  are  now  compulsory  in  the  U.  S. 
Army.  An  innoculation  against  cholera  has  also  been 
developed,  but  is  not  administered  to  troops  unless  in 
a  cholera  infested  district.  Such  measures,  however, 
while  very  efficacious,  should  not  in  the  least  be  al- 
lowed to  take  the  place  of  absolute  cleanliness  in  the 
kitchen  and  the  other  precautions  named. 


314  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

Typhus  fever  and  the  Bubonic  plague  are  trans- 
mitted respectively  by  the  bite  of  the  body  louse  and 
the  rat  flea.  Preventive  measures  consist,  in  the  former 
case,  of  frequent  bathing,  disinfection  of  clothing  and 
avoidance  of  persons  or  places  liable  to  be  infested 
with  lice,  and  in  the  latter  case  of  a  war  of  extermi- 
nation against  rats. 

Yellow  fever  and  Malaria  are  caused  by  the  bite  of 
mosquitoes  of  certain  varieties,  the  Stegomyia  in  the 
former  case  and  the  Anopheles  in  the  latter,  who  have 
obtained  the  infection  by  previously  biting  patients 
suffering  from  these  diseases.  These  mosquitoes  are 
both  night  biting  varieties,  so  the  use  of  mosquito 
bars  at  night  is  made  obligatory  upon  troops  within 
infected  areas.  All  breeding  places  of  the  mosquito, 
moreover,  should  be  destroyed,  tanks  covered,  cans 
flattened,  puddles  filled  in  and  swamps  or  stagnant 
pools  covered  with  crude  oil.  In  a  malaria  country, 
as  an  additional  precaution,  the  troops  are  given  a 
daily  dose  of  about  three  grains  of  quinine,  the  use 
of  which  for  this  purpose  is  compulsory. 

Smallpox,  though  highly  infectious,  is  well  under 
control,  and  has  been  practically  eliminated  from  the 
army  by  compulsory  vaccination. 

Tetanus,  or  lockjaw,  is  a  direct  result  of  the  in- 
fection of  wounds  from  the  soil,  and  is  common  in 
military  operations  in  a  highly  developed  country, 
as  in  the  invaded  portion  of  France.  In  going  into 
battle  the  soldier  should  be  freshly  bathed  and  wear 
clean  underwear,  and  if  wounded  should  avoid  con- 
tact between  the  wound  and  the  soil.  In  the  British 
army  in  France,  each  wounded  man  is  given  the 
tetanus  antitoxin  as  soon  as  he  can  be  reached.  The 
usual  practice  is  to  give  two  doses,  at  an  interval  of 
seven  days.  The  number  of  wounded  who  contract 
tetanus  is  now  about  2  per  1,000,  as  compared  with 
an  incidence  of  32  per  1,000  in  October,  1914. 


SANITATION  315 

The  French  and  the  Germans  now  follow  the  same 
practice,  and  it  is  stated  that  as  a  result  tetanus  has 
practically  disappeared  from  the  German  army.  In 
the  French  service  it  has  been  determined  that  in 
cases  where  all  wounded  are  innoculated  the  incidence 
is  4.18  per  1,000  wounded,  and  where  only  the  sus- 
picious cases  are  innoculated,  it  is  12.79  per  1,000. 

Apparently  it  is  not  the  practice  to  innoculate  all 
men  in  the  service  for  tetanus  as  for  typhoid  and 
paratyphoid,  although  it  was  so  reported  early  in  the 
war. 

Measles,  Mumps,  Scarlet  fever,  etc,  are  commonly 
brought  to  camp  by  recruits  who  have  been  exposed 
before  leaving  home.  They  attack  particularly  troops 
from  rural  districts  who  have  not  mingled  much  with 
others  and  have  not  had  these  diseases  in  childhood. 
Prompt  isolation  and  treatment  will  usually  prevent 
their  spreading.  Detachments  of  recruits  may  be 
quarantined  for  about  twelve  days  after  arrival. 

Venereal  Diseases,  It  is  now  provided  in  the  U.  S. 
Army  that  a  man  exposing  himself  to  venereal  dis- 
ease shall  report  as  soon  as  practicable  to  his  organiza- 
tion surgeon  for  prophylactic  treatment.  This  treat- 
ment is  effective  if  administered  within  about  eight 
hours  of  infection.  It  is  further  provided  that  if  he 
contract  a  disease  and  the  records  show  that  he  has 
not  reported  for  preventive  treatment,  he  shall  be 
tried  for  disobedience  of  orders.  In  any  case,  he 
shall  receive  no  pay  while  absent  from  duty. 

The  ordinary  rate  of  venereal  disease  in  the  army 
used  to  run  as  high  as  25%  of  a  command.  It  is  now 
5%  or  less. 

SANITATION    IN    THE    TRENCHES. 

Sanitation  in  the  trenches  is  a  matter  of  consid- 
erable difficulty.  Proper  living  conditions  must  often 
be  subordinated  to  a  number  of  other  considerations, 


316  PREPAREDNESS   AND    THE   ENGINEER 

and    the    quarters    are    crowded,    poorly   ventilated, 
damp,  and  oftentimes  downright  wet. 

General  Sanitation, 

This  corresponds  to  the  sanitation  of  a  camp,  and 
is  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  securing  to  the 
troops  occupying  the  trenches  as  healthy  living  con- 
ditions as  are  practicable  under  the  circumstances. 

Drainage,  The  most  important  contribution  to  the 
comfort  of  the  troops  in  the  trenches  has  to  do  with 
drainage,  which  is  usually  the  most  difficult  to  carry 
out  properly.  In  wet  weather  it  can  never  be  com- 
plete. In  laying  out  a  system  of  deliberate  entrench- 
ments, a  plan  of  drainage  is  always  provided,  but 
where  tactical  considerations  have  determined  the  lo- 
cation and  arrangement,  drainage  is  often  only  an 
afterthought. 

All  possible  precautions  should  be  taken  to  keep 
surface  water  out  of  the  trenches.  Where,  for  pur- 
poses of  concealment,  all  parapets  are  omitted,  this 
is  difficult  and  often  impossible.  The  back  edge  of 
every  trench  should  contain  a  gutter  to  carry  off  the 
water  which  enters.  These  gutters  lead  to  low  ground 
though  narrow  trenches,  built  with  a  zig-zag  trace 
to  prevent  hostile  fire  through  them.  Where  con- 
venient low  ground  is  lacking,  large  sump  pits  may 
be  dug  to  one  side  of  the  trenches  and  connected 
with  the  latter  by  narrow  ditches.  The  water  is 
bailed  or  even  pumped  out  of  these  sumps.  All  dug- 
outs, trench  shelters,  bomb  proofs,  etc.,  slope  slightly 
to  their  entrances,  where  sumps  are  located.  If  the 
soil  will  not  absorb  the  water  which  drains  into  these 
sumps,  they  must  be  bailed  out  at  intervals. 

Frequently,  with  continual  passage  through  the 
trench,  the  earth  and  water  are  reduced  to  a  thin 
batter,  which  will  not  drain  away,  and  which  is  as 
bad  to  stand  in  as  actual  water.    This  may  be  pushed 


SANITATION  317 

by  stable  brooms  or  scoops  similar  to  snow  shovels 
through  the  trenches  and  ditches  to  low  ground  or 
sump  pits  and  later  bailed  out.  Sometimes  a  dam  is 
built  between  the  trench  and  the  sump  and  the  latter 
filled  nearly  to  the  ground  surface.  Thicker  mud  is 
shoveled  over  the  parapet  or  put  into  sand  bags. 

The  wider  trenches  are  built,  the  better  the  sun  and 
wind  can  get  into  them  to  dry  them  out,  but  a  wide 
trench  is  ordinarily  little  better  than  a  shell  trap, 
and  most  troops  will  endure  a  little  mud  to  escape  the 
shell  fire. 

Various  devices  have  been  tried  to  keep  the  men's 
feet  out  of  the  mud  and  water.  Floor-hoards,  a  sort 
of  grating,  are  made  up  into  about  six-foot  lengths 
and  sent  up  from  the  rear  as  trench  stores.  They 
do  very  little  good  when  simply  laid  in  the  bottom 
of  the  trench,  as  they  work  down  into  the  mud  and 
conditions  are  soon  as  bad  as  ever.  They  should  be 
laid  upon  heavy  stakes,  driven  about  three  feet  into 
the  ground,  their  tops  well  above  the  bottom  of  the 
trench.  Frequently  these  gratings  are  constructed  in 
place  upon  the  stakes,  from  materials  brought  up 
from  the  rear. 

Some  trenches  are  paved  with  brick,  blocks  of  stone 
or  concrete,  with  a  small  ditch  along  the  rear  wall. 
It  is  said  that  the  Germans  use  concrete  blocks  cast 
especially  for  this  purpose,  with  a  wire  loop  for 
handling. 

Straw  should  never  be  placed  in  the  bottoms  of 
trenches,  as  it  simply  tramples  down  and  becomes 
useless.  It  also  renders  the  trench  more  conspicuous 
to  aerial  observers.  Brushwood  is  open  to  the  same 
objection,  with  the  further  disadvantage  that  once 
trampled  into  the  mud  it  is  practically  impossible  to 
dig  it  out.  Bound  into  fascines,  brush  makes  a  very 
satisfactory  footing,  and  is  largely  used  for  the  con- 
struction of  firing  steps. 


318  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

Disposal  of  Refuse,  The  long  and  narrow  commu- 
nications to  the  rear,  constantly  crowded  with  men 
and  materials,  greatly  increase  the  difficulty  of  re- 
moving refuse,  and  emphasize  the  necessity  of  keep- 
ing down  as  much  as  possible  the  amount  to  be  re- 
moved. 

Human  wastes  were  formerly  removed  from  the 
trenches  by  the  pail  system  exclusively,  but  this 
proved  unsatisfactory  on  account  of  the  pollution  of 
the  ground  about  the  pails  and  in  the  trenches 
through  which  they  were  carried.  Deep  pit  latrines 
are  now  used  in  both  the  French  and  British  armies. 
The  French  make  use  of  a  pit  covered  with  boards 
which  are  spaced  about  a  foot  apart,  the  intervals 
serving  as  straddle  trenches. 

Lime  is  the  universal  disinfectant,  and  is  brought 
up  from  the  rear  in  great  quantities  and  used  in  the 
trenches  and  latrines.  Crude  oil  appears  to  be  en- 
tirely unknown  in  sanitation,  though  much  better  for 
this  purpose,  as  it  keeps  down  odors,  prevents  breed- 
ing of  flies,  which  lime  will  not  do,  is  less  bulky  and 
is  easy  to  transport.  It  is  very  probable  that  the 
U.  S.  troops  will  adopt  both  the  Harvard  box  and 
crude  oil  for  trench  latrines. 

There  is  a  great  tendency  among  men  in  the 
trenches  to  throw  bits  of  food,  empty  cans,  rubbish, 
etc.,  over  the  parapet,  into  sump  pits,  etc.  This 
must  be  carefully  guarded  against,  as  the  resulting 
odor  and  flies  will  become  unbearable,  especially  in 
hot  weather.  In  the  British  army  the  trenches  are 
thoroughly  policed  daily,  and  all  waste  taken  back 
to  the  destructors  in  the  rear.  With  the  help  of 
crude  oil,  however,  there  appears  no  good  reason  why 
garbage  alone  should  not  be  disposed  of  in  pits  similar 
to  the  latrines.  As  there  is  little  cooking  in  the 
trenches,  the  amount  of  actual  garbage  should  be  com- 
paratively small. 


SANITATION  319 

Eubbish  is  properly  tak^n  to  the  rear  for  incinera- 
tion. As  stations  will  be  fairly  permanent  during 
trench  warfare,  time  will  be  available  to  construct 
very  efficient  types  of  refuse  destructors. 

One  peculiar  feature  of  the  present  war  is  the  mor- 
tality among  rats  during  a  gas  attack.  The  trenches 
are  always  infested  with  rats,  and  the  poisonous  gas, 
'  being  heavier  than  air,  settles  into  their  holes  and 
kills  them.  To  avoid  a  nuisance,  the  carcasses  must  be 
sought  out  and  disposed  of  after  each  attack  by  gas. 

Personal  Hygiene, 

Care  of  feet.  The  worst  evil  in  trench  life  is  wet 
clothing,  particularly  on  the  feet.  The  immediate 
results  of  standing  in  water  or  mud  or  of  wearing 
wet  shoes  and  socks  are  trench  feet  and,  in  cold 
weather,  frost  hite.  The  latter  was  very  common  in 
the  British  army  during  the  first  winter  in  the 
trenches,  until  it  was  finally  decided  that  the  men 
themselves  were  to  blame,  in  neglecting  to  change  to 
dry  socks  when  the  opportunity  afforded,  in  wearing 
tight  puttees,  which  hindered  the  circulation,  etc. 
Men  who  reported  with  frost-bitten  feet  were  there- 
fore court-martialed,  and  an  immediate  improvement 
was  noticed. 

Trench  feet  result  from  continuously  wet  feet,  and 
may  be  avoided  by  proper  care.  Eubber  boots  are 
now  issued  to  men  going  into  the  trenches,  but  care 
must  be  taken  that  they  are  not  worn  more  than 
necessary,  as  they  make  the  feet  tender  and  more, 
susceptible  to  ailments.  Each  man  going  into  the 
trenches  bathes  and  rubs  his  feet  and  legs  with  whale 
oil.  He  also  carries  an  extra  pair  of  dry  socks.  The 
wet  socks  are  taken  to  the  rear  each  night,  dried, 
and  returned  the  following  night. 

If  the  feet  are  washed  in  the  trenches,  it  is  impor- 
tant that  no  hot  water  be  used,  nor  should  the  feet 


320  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

be  dried  near  a  fire,  as  they  are  thus  made  tender 
and  more  subject  to  frost-bite.  They  should  be 
washed  in  cool  water  and  ruihed  dry,  to  stimulate 
the  circulation. 

Drinking  Water,  After  a  trial  at  boiling  water  for 
use  in  the  trenches,  both  the  French  and  British  have 
adopted  the  method  of  sterilization  by  hypochlorite 
of  lime.  The  treated  water  is  piped  into  the  trenches 
if  practicable,  otherwise  it  is  brought  up  in  wheeled 
tanks.  Men  should  be  restrained  from  drinking  water 
taken  from  the  trenches  or  from  shell  holes,  even  if 
boiled. 

Vermin,  It  is  practicably  impossible,  under  pres- 
ent conditions,  to  avoid  vermin  in  the  trenches.  How- 
ever careful  a  man  may  be,  he  is  always  associated 
with  others  not  so  careful,  or  his  organization  may 
take  over  a  trench  which  is  infested  with  lice  from 
previous  occupants.  It  is  said  that  a  certain  kind  of 
underwear  will  keep  vermin  from  the  body,  and  va- 
rious insect  powders  are  in  common  use,  with  more 
or  less  success.  Short  hair  and  absolute  personal 
cleanliness  are  the  best  preventive  measures. 

Once  infested,  the  hair  on  various  parts  of  the  body 
should  be  cut  short  and  a  bath  taken  in  gasoline  or 
kerosene.  Upon  coming  from  the  trenches,  troops 
are  marched  to  the  baths,  where  they  cleanse  them- 
selves thoroughly  while  their  clothing  is  being  cleaned 
and  baked.  Just  before  returning  to  the  trenches, 
this  operation  is  repeated.  In  the  trenches  themselves 
lime  is  used  freely,  shelters  are  whitewashed  and  the 
straw  in  dugouts  is  frequently  renewed,  the  old  straw 
being  burned. 

With  all  these  precautions,  vermin  still  persist, 
principally  on  account  of  the  carelessness  of  some  of 
the  men,  and  they  will  probably  continue  to  infest 
the  trenches  until  the  appearance  of  typhus  fever 
causes  energetic  measures  for  their  eradication. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
CONCLUSION. 

The  foregoing  chapters  have  presented  a  very  in- 
complete outline  of  some  of  the  engineering  duties 
and  a  few  of  the  military  duties  which  will  devolve 
upon  the  company  officer  in  time  of  war.  These  sub- 
jects are  large,  and  have  barely  been  touched  upon 
in  this  discussion,  and  there  are  others  which  have 
not  even  been  mentioned.  Nothing  has  been  said 
upon  the  subject  of  infantry  tactics,  which  will  prob- 
ably occupy  as  much  of  an  officer's  time  as  the  tech- 
nical work.  Similarly,  no  mention  has  been  made 
of  the  services  of  security  and  information,  with 
their  sub-divisions  of  outposts,  advance  and  rear 
guards,  patroling,  etc. 

Transportation  and  supply,  though  vital  to  the 
existence  of  the  army  and  introducing  many  intricate 
problems,  have  been  omitted,  as  have  the  subjects  of 
military  law  and  government. 

Coming  down  to  the  field  of  engineering  itself, 
there  will  be  found  no  mention  of  railways,  the  very 
arteries  of  an  army,  though  not  every  engineer  knows 
how  all  ideas  of  maximum  gradients  or  curvature  are 
discarded  in  military  practice,  or  that  the  usual  gage 
of  a  military  railway  is  made  4  feet  9  inches,  to  al- 
low for  irregularities  of  track  laying. 

All  these  are  beyond  the  scope  of  a  work  of  this 
character,  which  aims  to  point  out  the  way  to  the 
engineer,  not  to  instruct  him.  It  is  hoped,  however, 
that  the  material  presented  will  give  an  idea  of  the 
magnitude  of  the  problems  which  will  confront  engi- 
neers in  war  and  point  out  the  necessity  of  individual 
preparation.    The  army  which  will  be  required  by  the 

321 


322  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

United  States  to  bring  the  present  war  to  a  success- 
ful conclusion  is  estimated  by  one  of  our  foremost* 
military  authorities  at  2,500,000  men.  Nearly  as 
many  more  will  probably  be  called  to  the  colors  and 
placed  in  training  as  a  reserve  force.  In  the  Civil 
War  we  called  out  two  million  and  a  half  men,  and 
that  was  before  the  days  of  large  armies.  With 
2,500,000  men  we  should  need  about  120,000  engi- 
neers, of  whom  4,000  would  be  officers  and  24,000 
non-commissioned  officers.  The  latter  are  as  impor- 
tant to  the  army  as  the  officers,  and  particularly  so 
in  the  Engineers.  No  man  should  hold  a  corporal's 
warrant  who  is  not  fully  capable  of  performing  the 
duties  of  a  foreman  of  construction  on  civil  works, 
and  the  grade  of  sergeant  requires  a  man  competent 
to  fill  the  position  of  overseer  or  superintendent  on 
a  construction  job.  Every  engineer  must  not  think 
that  his  civilian  training  would  in  itself  entitle  him 
to  a  commission.  Many  who  entertain  this  view 
might  find  it  difficult  to  hold  down  a  sergeant's  job. 
It  is,  however,  within  the  reach  of  every  technically 
trained  man  to  qualify  himself  for  a  commission, 
and  those  who  do  not  are  contributing  to  the  shortage 
of  officers  which  is  bound  to  occur,  as  well  as  depriv- 
ing themselves  of  a  military  position  on  a  par  with 
their  education  and  social  connections.  First-class 
privates  of  engineers  are  skilled  workmen:  carpen- 
ters, blacksmiths,  machinists,  riggers,  electricians  and 
mechanics  of  all  kinds.  Technical  men  can  even  find 
a  place  in  their  ranks  as  sketchers,  surveyors,  etc. 
Privates  are  of  the  class  of  outdoor  workmen  met  on 
civil  works.  Lumbermen,  miners,  boatmen,  teamsters, 
chauffeurs  and  laborers  are  fair  examples  of  men 
useful  in  the  Engineers.  The  lines  between  the  two 
grades  of  privates  are  not  closely  drawn,  and  length 
of  service,  or  special  experience  and  adaptability  may 
advance  a  man  from  one  grade  to  the  other. 


CONCLUSION  323 

It  is  probable  that  many  Engineers  must  serve  in 
the  ranks  as  privates  or  non-commissioned  officers. 
There  is  no  disgrace  in  such  service.  The  best  citizens 
of  Europe  have  been  doing  this  for  three  years,  and 
there  is  no  reason  why  Americans  should  be  exempt. 
A  company  commander  respects  and  , relies  upon  an 
efficient  and  dependable  non-commissioned  officer  as 
much  or  more  than  upon  his  subaltern  officers.  Many 
of  the  sergeants  of  the  U.  S.  Engineers  have  a  repu- 
tation throughout  the  Army  for  their  engineering 
skill,  and  their  practical  knowledge  of  the  details  of 
the  engineer  soldier's  work  is  probably  in  excess  of 
that  of  many  officers.  It  means  something  to  be  a 
sergeant  in  the  Engineers. 

But  all  cannot  be  privates,  corporals  or  sergeants. 
There  will  be  urgently  needed  about  4,000  officers,  and 
the  Engineers  of  this  country  must  furnish  them.  The 
Regular  Army,  National  Guard,  Training  Camps  and 
Officers'  Eeserve  Corps  may  supply  enough  to  officer 
the  troops  which  take  the  field  at  the  beginning,  but 
as  the  more  experienced  officers  go  to  the  front  there 
will  be  less  and  less  opportunity  for  men  with  little 
or  no  military  training  to  fit  into  an  organization  and 
learn  by  absorption.  Future  levies  of  troops  will  be 
more  and  more  officered  by  men  of  no  practical  ex- 
perience, and  will  therefore  take  longer  to  train  or 
will  go  to  the  front  less  thoroughly  trained. 

Technical  men  sufficiently  trained  to  replace  losses 
among  the  officers  will  be  hard  to  find,  and  the  stan- 
dard of  the  commissioned  personnel  will  suffer.  One 
cannot  step  from  civil  life  into  a  commission  and 
hope  to  successfully  lead  engineer  troops  in  the  field. 
Men  are  quick  to  detect  uncertainty  or  hesitation  in 
an  officer,  as  a  horse  recognizes  lack  of  confidence  on 
the  part  of  his  rider,  and  to  lose  faith  in  their  leader 
is  the  first  step  towards  the  complete  disorganization 
of  troops. 


324  PREPAREDNESS   xVND   THE   ENGINEER 

General  Morrison,  author  of  ^' Minor  Tactics"  and 
^'Infantry  Training,"  says: 

^ '  The  responsibility  resting  upon  an  officer  in  time 
of  war  is  great.  His  mistakes  are  paid  for  in  blood. 
To  seek  a  command  in  war  beyond  his  capabilities  is 
no  less  criminal  than  for  a  man  with  no  knowledge 
of  a  locomotive  or  railroading  to  attempt  running 
the  engine  of  a  crowded  express  train  on  a  busy 
line." 

The  one  great  source  of  officers  after  hostilities 
commence  must  be  the  field  forces,  particularly  to 
make  up  losses  among  the  commissioned  personnel. 
The  training  is  intensive  in  a  high  degree,  and  di- 
rectly in  line  with  the  service  required.  As  the  war 
progresses  this  source  of  supply  will  be  drawn  upon 
to  a  greater  and  greater  extent,  until  practically  all 
original  appointments  will  be  from  the  ranks. 

This  will  be  done  for  two  reasons:  First,  the 
training  that  can  be  had  at  the  front  under  service 
conditions  is  so  much  better  than  can  be  given  in  a 
school  or  training  camp,  and  the  latter  can  be  so 
much  better  given  to  selected  men  who  have  served 
at  the  front  and  have  been  recommended  for  com- 
missions. 

Second,  the  training  camps  are  filled  by  volunteers, 
for  a  preferred  service  perhaps,  but  volunteers  no 
less.  The  volunteer  system  has  always  broken  down 
in  long  wars,  and  the  supply,  even  for  officers,  will 
not  last  indefinitely  in  this. 

It  may  be  safely  stated,  therefore,  that  every  quali- 
fied man  will  receive  a  commission,  whether  it  be  by 
way  of  the  officers'  training  corps  or  through  the 
ranks. 

In  fact,  the  writer  confidently  expects  to  see  the 
day  when  practically  all  candidates  for  commissions 
will  be  men  whp  have  served  at  the  front  and  have 
been  recommended  for  an  officers'  training  course. 


CONCLUSION  '  325 

There  should  be  no  hesitation  on  the  part  of  an 
engineer  who  has  failed  to  make  the  training  camps, 
therefore,  in  entering  the  ranks  to  work  for  his 
commission.  For  the  young  technical  man  who  has 
the  education,  the  physique  and  the  energy  to  suc- 
ceed as  an  officer,  there  can  be  no  more  patriotic 
act  than  enlistment  in  the  Engineers.  Such  a  man, 
with  his  mind  set  upon  learning  all  that  pertains  to 
his  branch  of  the  service,  simply  cannot  be  kept 
down. 

This  war  is  one  of  engineers,  and  upon  the  ef- 
ficient leadership  of  our  engineer  troops  will  depend 
in  large  measure  our  ultimate  success. 


THE  END 


APPENDIX  I. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  reading  upon  military  sub- 
jects recommended  by  the  Chief  of  Engineers,  U.  S. 
Army,  for  the  use  of  civilian  engineers : 

WAR  DEPARTMENT     * 

Office  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers 
Washington,  November  27,  1915 

Military  Reading  for  Civilian  Engineers, 
By  authority  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  in  re- 
sponse to  frequent  requests,  the  following  suggested 
list  of  reading  is  published  for  the  information  of 
civilian  engineers  desiring  to  inform  themselves  an 
military  subjects. 

These  references  have  been  selected,  first,  with  a 
view  to  giving  the  engineers  unfamiliar  with  the  art  of 
war,  a  general  survey  of  that  subject — an  understand- 
ing of  which  is  the  first  essential  to  insure  successful 
application  of  engineering  knowledge  and  resources  to 
military  purposes ;  and,  second,  with  a  view  to  setting 
forth,  as  far  as  practicable,  the  ways  in  which  engineer- 
ing is  applied  to  military  purposes  and  the  means  pro- 
vided therefor. 

Both  military  art  and  military  engineering  are  pro- 
gressive, and  a  considerable  part  of  the  latest  and  most 
detailed  information  published  is  available  only  in 
service  journals  of  our  own  and  foreign  armies.  This 
is  particularly  true  of  technical  details  of  seacoast  de- 
fense (including  submarine  mining),  of  field  artillery, 
of  military  aviation,  and  the  influence  of  these  on  mili- 
tary engineering.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  the 
fundamentals  of  each  subject  are  well  covered  by  the 

326 


APPENDIX  327 

references  given  in  this  list.  While  the  list  is  long,  the 
relative  importance  of  the  various  works  is  indicated, 
and  suitable  comments  on  each  are  included,  so  that 
persons  using  the  lists  of  references  may  be  able  to 
select  those  which  particularly  interest  them. 

The  references  under  each  subject  are  generally  di- 
vided into  two  groups,  the  first  containing  the  more 
essential  references,  and  the  second  those  suitable  for 
persons  desiring  to  inquire  further  into  the  subject. 

Suggestions  looking  to  improvements  of  the  lists  will 
be  gladly  received. 

Note — The  following  abbreviations  are  used: 

Supt.  of  Docs. — Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government 

Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Book  Dept. — Book  Department,    Army    Service    Schools, 

Fort  Leavenworth,  Kans. 

"A"  MILITARY  POLICY,  CONDUCT  OF  WAR,  AND 

MILITARY  HISTORY. 

Group  I. 

(1)  Official  Bulletin,  Vol.  I,  No.  2,  Office  of  the  Chief  of 

Staff,  Washington,  D.  C. 

(Especially  pp.  21-39)    Publisher:  Army  War  Col- 
lege, Washington,  D.  C.      Free. 

(An  official  outline  of  the  theory  under  which 
our  forces  are  to  be  organized  and  adminis- 
tered.) 

(2)  Military  Policy  of  the  United  States — Upton.    May  be 

obtained  from  Supt.  of  Docs. ;  paper,  50  cents ;  cloth, 
65  cents. 

(A  most  valuable  and  comprehensive  review  of  this 
subject.) 

(3)  Field  Service  Regulations,  1914.    May  be  obtained  from 

Supt.  of  Docs. ;    60  cents. 

(A  condensed  official  statement  of  principles,  meth- 
ods and  details  of  military  operations.) 

(4)  Elements  of  Strategy — Fiebeger.    Publisher,  U.  S.  Mili- 

tary Academy,  West  Point,  N.  Y.     May  be  obtained 
from  Book  Dept. ;  75  cents. 

(A  short  outline,  with  historical  illustrations.) 


328  PREPAREDNESS    AND    THE    ENGINEER 

Group  II. 

(5)  Conduct  of  War — Von  der  Goltz;  translated  by  J.  Dick- 

man  ;  Hudson  Publishing  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo.  May 
be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  $1.70. 

(The  standard  work  on  this  subject,  covering  gen- 
erally the  same  ground  as  (4),  but  more  abstract- 
edly and  elaborately.) 

(6)  On  War — Clausewitz;   translated  by  J.  J.  Graham;  3 

vols. ;  K.  Paul,  Trench,  Trubner  &  Co.,  1908.  May  be 
obtained  from  Book  Dept.;  $6.60  (including  postage 
and  duty.) 

(The  greatest  classic  on  the  subject;  a  complete 
analysis  of  the  phenomenon  of  war,  and  profound 
discussion  of  the  mechanism  thereof.  Written 
early  in  the  19tli  Century,  it  is  still  the  foundation 
of  modern  military  theory.) 
(61/^)  The  Nation  in  Arms — Von  der  Goltz.  May  be  ob- 
tained from  Book  Dept.;  $2.50. 

(An  excellent  modern  work  on  war;  less  elaborate 
but  more  readable  than  Clausewitz.) 

(7)  American  Campaigns — M.  F.  Steel;  2  vols.;  Publishers: 

Byron   S.  Adams   Publishing  Co.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

May  be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  $4.50. 

(In  addition  to  careful  historical  surveys  of  all  the 
campaigns  from  the  Colonial  Wars  to  the  Spanish- 
American  War,  these  lectures  give  extensive  and 
valuable  comments  as  to  the  military  principles.) 

(8)  A   study  of  Attacks    on    Fortified  Harbors — Rodgers; 

Proceedings  Nos.  Ill,  112  and  113,  U.  S.  Naval  Insti- 
tute, Annapolis,  Md. 

(9)  Lessons  of  the  War  with  Spain — Mahan.     Publishers : 

Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.  May  be  obtained 
from  Book  Dept;  $2.00. 

( Of  special  Importance,  as  showing  the  true  relation 
between  our  coast  defense  and  our  navy). 

(10)  Reports  of  Military  Observers  on  the  Russo-Japanese 

War.     Part  III — J.  E.  Kuhn.    May  be  obtained  from 

Supt.  of  Docs. ;  60  cents. 

( In  addition  to  an  account  of  operations,  this  report 
contains  valuable  information  as  to  fortification 
and  siege  work,  organization  and  equipment.) 

(11)  Organization  and  Operation  of  the  Lines  of  Communi- 

cations in  War — Furse,  1894.  Publishers :  Wm.  Clowes 
&  Sons.,  Ltd.,  London. 

(An  old  but  comprehensive  survey  of  this  subject, 
with  much  historical  information.) 


APPENDIX  329 

"B"  PERMANENT  FORTIFICATIONS. 
Group  I. 
(The  references  given  cover  chiefly  the  principles  and 
general  features  of  this  subject ;  the  details  are  mostly 
printed  in  unavailable  form,  either  in  service  journals 
or  in  confidential  documents.  References  to  some  of 
the  former  can  be  furnished,  if  desired.) 

(12)  Report  of  National  Coast  Defense— (Taft)  Board,  1906. 

May  be  obtained  from  Army  War  College,  Washington, 

D.  C.    Free. 

(The  official  project  for  harbor  defenses  of  the 
United  States.  On  account  of  progressive  obsoles- 
cence of  seacoast  defenses,  this  project  has  been 
or  is  being,  modified,  but  still  sets  forth  clearly  the 
fundamentals  of  its  subject.) 

Group  II. 

(13)  Lectures  on  Seacoast  Defense — Winslow.      Publishers 

U.  S.  Engineer  School,  Washington  Barracks,  D.  C. 
Price  50  cents. 

(Much  of  these  lectures  relates  to  technical  details, 
and  a  considerable  part  is  now  obsolete. ) 

(14)  Permanent  Fortifications — Fieberger,  1900;  U.  S.  Mili- 

tary Academy,  West  Point,  N.  Y. ;  $1.00.    May  be  ob- 
tained from  Book  Dept. 

(While  rather  old,  this  work  gives  a  simple  presen- 
tation of  the  fundamentals  on  its  subject,  includ- 
ing an  historical  outline.  A  revised  edition  will 
soon  be  published.) 

(15)  Fortifications— C.  S.  Clarke;  Dutton  &  Co.,  New  York; 

$4.50.    May  be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. 
(A  treatise  on  the  same  lines  as  (14) ). 

(16)  Principles   of   Land    Defense— Thuillier,    1902;    Long- 

mans,   Green   &  Co.     May    be   obtained   from   Book 
Dept. ;  $3.83. 

(A  very  valuable  work,  covering  the  principles  of 
both  field  and  permanent  fortification. ) 

"C"  ORGANIZATION,  EQUIPMENT  AND  DUTIES 

OF  ENGINEER  TROOPS. 

Group  I. 

(17)  Field  Service  Regulations,  1914.    (See  "A"  3.) 

(18)  Tables  of  Organization,  1914.     May  be  obtained  from 

Supt.  of  Docs.;  25  cents. 

(These  tables  represent — subject  to  modification  and 


330  PREPAREDNESS   AND    THE    ENGINEER 

within  the  limits  of  existing  law — the  approved 
policy  of  the  War  Department  with  regard  to  or- 
ganization.) 

(19)  Official  Bulletin,  Office  of  the  Chief  of  Staff,  vol.  I,  No. 

4  (Appendix  4).    Use  of  Engineer  Troops.    Publisher: 
Army  War  College,  Washington,  D.  C.    Free. 

(An  official  statement  of  the  principles  which  should 
govern  in  the  use  of  engineers,  with  practical  sug- 
gestions. ) 

(20)  Duties  of  Engineer  Troops  in  a  General  Engagement 

of  a  Mixed  Force — Burgess.     Publishers:  U.  S.  En- 
gineer School,  Washington  Barracks,  D.  C. ;  25  cents. 
(Obsolete  in  some  respects,  particularly  organiza- 
tion, but  excellent  in  general  scope.) 

(21)  General  Orders  No.  6,  War  Department,  1915.    May  be 

obtained   from   The  Adjutant  General,   U.   S.   Army, 
Washington,  D.  C.     Free. 

(Prescribes  the  training  of  Engineer  troops.) 

Group  II. 

(22)  Studies  in  Minor  Tactics — Army  Service  Schools,  1915. 

May  be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  50  cents. 

(The  principles  of  Minor  Tactics  are  set  forth  by 
solution  of  a  series  of  problems.) 

(23)  Technique  of  Modern  Tactics — Bond    &     McDonough, 

1914;  Banta  Publishing  Co.,  Manasha,  Wis.    May  be 

obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  $2.55. 

(This  work  covers,  in  a  very  specific  way,  the  prin- 
ciples of  tactics  for  all  arms,  a  general  knowledge 
of  which  is  essential  for  engineers. ) 

(24)  Operation  Orders — Von  Kiesling;  translation.    May  be 

obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  50  cents. 

(A  lucid  exposition,  by  use  of  assumed  cases,  of 
the  operation  of  highly  trained  troops  of  all  arms 
in  various  phases  of  battle.) 

(25)  Engineer  Unit  Accountability  Manual.    May  be  obtained 

from  Supt.  of  Docs. ;  5  cents. 

(Official  lists  of  standard  equipment  supplied  to  En- 
gineer battalions  and  companies.) 

(26)  Organization  of  the  Bridge  Equipage  of  the  U.  S.  Army, 

1915  (Revised  edition  just  going  to  press.) 

(Includes  description  of  equipage  and  regulations 
for  ponton  drill.) 


APPENDIX        •  331 

(27)  Officers'  Manual — Moss;   Banta  Publishing  Co.,  Mena- 

sha,  Wis. ;  $2.50.    May  be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. 
(Treats  of  routine  duties  of  officers,  customs  of  the 
service,  army  organization,  etc.) 

(28)  Manual  for  Courts  Martial.  May  be  obtained  from  Supt. 

of  Docs. ;  50  cents. 

"D"  FIELD  ENGINEERING. 
(Military  field  engineering  at  the  front  differs  from 
ordinary  engineering  work  in  the  field,  in  being  gener- 
ally simpler,  of  a  rough-and-ready  character,  and  espec: 
ially  because  of  the  limited  equipment  which  can  be 
taken  along  with  the  advance  of  an  army,  and  because 
of  the  necessity  of  working  in  strict  subordination  to 
the  military  situation.  In  rear  of  the  army,  on  the  con- 
trary, conditions  are  very  similar  to  those  governing 
ordinary  engineering  operations,  and  civilian  organiza- 
tion is  suitable,  subject  to  directions  by  the  higher  mili- 
tary  staff.  Little  attempt  is  made  in  works  on  military 
field  engineering  to  treat  of  general  engineering 
methods. ) 

(29)  Field  Fortifications— Fiebeger,    1913;    John    Wiley    & 

Sons,  New  York.    May  be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. ; 
$1.90. 

(In  addition  to  technical  details,  this  work  gives 

valuable  historical  illustrations  of  the  principles 

of  this  subject.) 

(30)  Field    Entrenchments,    Spade    work    for    Riflemen — 

John  Murray,  London.     May  be  obtained  from  Book 
Dept. ;  40  cents. 

(A  very  up-to-date  little  work,  especially  on  details.) 

(31)  Notes   on   Field    Fortification — Army    Field    Engineer 

School.    May  be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  30  cents. 

(32)  Engineer  Field   Manual — Professional   Papers   No.  29, 

Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army,  3d  edition,  1909,  500 
pages.  May  be  obtained  from  Supt.  of  Docs.,  $1.00. 
(A  very  complete  official  pocketbook  for  Engineer 
officers  in  the  field,  containing  much  tabular  and 
technical  data,  as  well  as  brief  outlines  of  prin- 
ciples and  methods.  The  subjects  covered  are: 
Part  I,  Reconnaissance;  Part  II,  Bridges;  Part 
III,  Roads;  Part  IV,  Railroads;  Part  V,  Field 
Fortification,  and  Part  VI,  Animal  Transportation. 
A  new  revision  of  the  manual  is  contemplated,  but 
will  not  be  ready  within  a  year.  The  portion  of 
the  manual  relating  to  Field  Fortifications,  being 


332  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

somewhat  obsolete,  should  be  considered  in  connec- 
tion with  either  (30)  and  (31)  above.  The  portion 
relating  to  Railroads  is  largely  superseded  by  (35) 
below.) 

(33)  Notes  on  Bridges  and  Bridging — ^Spalding.    May  be  ob- 

tained from  Book  Dept. 

(A  small  pamphlet  on  military  bridging.) 

(34)  Military  Topography  for  Mobile  Forces — Sherrill,  2d 

edition;   Banta  Publishing  Co.,  Menasha,  Wis,  1911. 

May  be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  $2.25. 

(Besides  matter  given  in  ordinary  text-books  on 
surveying,  this  work  gives  in  detail  the  special 
methods  of  sketching  developed  in  the  army  for 
rapid  military  mapping.) 

(35)  Military  Railroads — Connor;  Professional  Papers  No. 
-^      32,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army.     Supt.  of  Docs. ; 

50  cents. 

(Intended  to  cover  general  administration  of  exist- 
ing railroads  for  military  purposes  and  the  hand- 
ling of  railroads  by  military  personnel  in  the 
advanced  sections  where  railroads  can  not  be  oper- 
ated by  their  regular  civilian  organizations,  or 
where  new  railroads  are  required  in  the  immed- 
iate vicinity  of  the  Army.  Revised  edition  soon 
to  appear.) 

(36)  Notes  on   Military   Explosives — Weaver;   J.  Wiley   & 

Sons,  New  York;  1912.  May  be  obtained  from  Book 
Dept;  $2.20. 

(Elementary  notes  on  this  subject  will  be  found  in 
the  Engineer  Field  Manual  and  other  references 
cited.    The  work  is  more  elaborate.) 

"E"  MISCELLANEOUS. 

(37)  Regulations  for  the  Army  of  the  United  States;  Supt 

of  Docs.;  50  cents. 

(38)  The  "Volunteer  Law,"  approved  April  25,  1914;  Bulle- 

tin No.  17,  War  Department,  1914.  May  be  obtained 
from  The  Adjutant  General,  U.  S.  Army,  Washington, 
D.  C.    Free. 

(39)  General  Orders  No.  54,  War  Department,  1914.     May 

be  obtained  from  The  Adjutant  General,  U.  S.  Army, 
Washington,  D.  C.    Free. 

(Covers  examination  of  candidates  for  commissions 
as  officers  of  volunteers.) 


APPENDIX  333 

(40)  General  Orders  No.  50,  War  Department,  1915.    May  be 

obtained  from  The  Adjutant  General,  U.  S.  Army, 
Washington,  D.  C.     Free. 

(Amends  General  Orders  54, 1914,  as  to  examination 
of  candidates  for  commissions  in  volimteer  engi- 
neers. ) 

(41)  Treatise  on  Military  Law — Davis;  J.  Wiley  &  Sons,  New 

York.    May  be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  $5.30. 

(42)  Elements  of  Military  Hygiene — Ashburne;  new  edition; 

Houghton,  Miflain  &  Co.,  Boston,  1915.  May  be  ob- 
tained from  Book  Dept. ;  $1.30. 

"F"  PERIODICALS. 

(43)  Professional  Memoirs,   Corps  of  Engineers,  U.   S.  A., 

audi  Engineer  Department  at  Large;  Bi-monthly  (for- 
merly quarterly)  ;  Washington  Barracks,  D.  C,  Engi- 
neer Press;  per  year,  $3.00. 

(44)  The  Royal  Engineers'   Journal — Royal  Engineers'  In- 

stitute, Chatham,  England;  Monthly;  per  year,  $4.00. 
(American  agents,  E.  Steiger  &  Co.,  49  Murray  St., 
New  York). 

(45)  Journal  of  the  Military  Service  Institution,  Governors 

Island,  New  York.  Bi-monthly ;  published  by  the  In- 
stitution; per  year,  $3.00. 

(46)  Journal  of  the  United  States  Artillery;  Bi-monthly; 

Fort  Monroe,  Va. ;  Coast  Artillery  School  press ;  per 
year,  $2.75,  including  Index  to  Current  Literature; 
without  Index,  $2.50. 

(47)  Journal  of  the  United  States  Cavalry  Association;  pub- 

lished by  the  Association  at  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kans. ; 
per  year  $2.50. 

(48)  Infantry  Journal;  Bi-monthly;  published  by  the  U.  S. 

Infantry  Association,  Union  Trust  Building,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. ;  per  year  $3.00. 

(49)  Field  Artillery  Journal;  quarterly;  published  by  the 

U.  S.  Field  Artillery  Association,  601  Star  Building, 
Washington,  D.  C. ;  per  year  $3.00. 


APPENDIX  II. 

Equipment  of  Engineer  Troops 

The  following  are  the  principal  elements  of  the  wagon  and  pack  loads  of  the 
engineer  combat  train.  For  full  detailed  lists  the  Unit  Accountability  Equip- 
ment Manuals  should  be  consulted. 


Fig.  129.    Headquarters  Tool  Wagon,  Escort  Type, 


1.     LOADINGS  OF  HEADQUARTERS  TOOL  WAGONS,  ESCORT- 
WAGON  TYPE. 


Regi- 
mental 
head- 
quarters, 


Engineer  regiment. 


Battalion 

head- 
quarters 


Mounted 
engi- 
neers, 
battalion 

head- 
quarters. 


Blacksmith  equipment: 

Anvil,  B.  S.,  100  pounds,  with  B.  S.  apron, 
coal  bags,  chisels,  clinch  cutter,  clinching 
iron,  countersink,  flatter,  2  inches;  fullers, 
T  and  B,  |-inch;  hammers  (7) ;  hardy;  head- 
ing tools,  ^,  f,  and  1  inch;  rivet  headers,  ^, 
f,  and  1  inch;  punches,  |  and  f  inch; 
swedges,  T  and  B,  i,  ^,  f,  and  1  inch;  and 
tongs 

Brace,  ratchet,  and  set  of  13  drills  (range  of 
sizes)  3^2  to  JS  by  thirty-seconds,  i^  to  |  by 
sixteenths 

Files,  assorted,  8  to  16  inches 


1 
10 


334 


APPENDIX 


335 


LOADINGS  OF  HEADQUARTERS  TOOL  WAGONS,  ESCORT- 
WAGON  TYPE— Continued. 


Engineer  regiment. 


Regi- 
mental 
head- 
quarters 


Battalion 

head- 
quarters. 


Mounted 
engi- 
neers, 
battalion 

head- 
quarters. 


Forge,  portable,  with  rake  and  shovel 

Hammer,  sledge,  10  pounds 

Handles,  assorted 

Oiler,  I  pint 

Pipe  cutter.  No.  2  (size,  ^  to  2  inches) 

Rule,  2-foot  folding 

Shoeing  outfit,  including  shoeing  knives,  toe 
knives,  nippers,  pinchers,  rasp,  and  tongs . . 

Stocks,  dies  and  taps.  No.  2,  sets  (size,  5  to 
Ij  inches  by  eighths) 

Tire  measure 

Vises,  B.  S.,  4-inch  jaws 

Wrench,  monkey 

Blacksmith  supplies,  sets,  consisting  of — - 

Borax,  5  pounds;  coal,  blacksmith's,  4 
bushels;  nails,  horseshoe,  25  pounds;  nuts, 
assorted,  40  pounds  (sizes,  f,  i,  f,  and  1 
inch) ;  oil,  machine,  1  quart;  steel,  soft, 
bars,  156  feet  (sizes,  i  by  1  inch'and  2  inches; 
I  by  If  inch  and  2  inches;  1  by  2  inches, 
and  ^,  f,  and  1  inch  round);  steel,  tool,  5 

feet  (size,  f-inch  octagon) 

Map  reproduction  equipment: 

Buckets,  galvanized  iron  (capacity,  14 
quarts) 

Cans,  galvanized  iron,  5  gallons 

Cans,  galvanized  iron,  3  gallons 

Chests,  zincographic  (sets  of  3)  for  prints  24 
by  30  inches,  with  suitable  bottles,  bowls, 
brushes,  glazed  rollers,  knives,  needles, 
zinc  plates  (16),  press  (hand),  roller  grip, 
rollers  (leather),  snakestone,  sponges, 
trays  (20  by  24  inches) ,  and  whirl er 

Frames,  blue  print,  24  by  30  inches,  with 
tray  (24  by  39  inches)  and  tin  tubes  (2) .  .  . 

Instruments,  drawing,  lithographic,  sets, 
with  triangles  and  " T"  square 

Lanterns,  Dietz 

Screw  drivers  (3-inch  blade) 

Shears,  16-inch 

Stoves,  oil,  single  burner 

Tents,  hospital,  with  shield,  complete 

Towels,  bath 

Wrench,  monkey,  12-inch 

Zincographic  outfit  supplies,  sets,  for  clean- 
ing zinc  plates:  Nitric  acid,  5  pounds; 
flash,  12  cans;  pumice,  5  pounds;  caustic 
soda,  10  pounds.  For  photographic  trans- 
fer: Brown  print  paper;  30-inch,  10  yards; 
chromic,  2  pounds;  phosphoric,  2  pounds; 
and  tannic,  1  pound;  albumen,  2  pounds; 
ammonium    bichromate,     1    pound;    ab- 


1 

1 

10 

1 
1 
1 


336 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


LOADINGS  OF  HEADQUARTERS  TOOL  WAGONS,  ESCORT- 
WAGON  TYPE— Continued. 


Engineer  regiment, 


Regi- 
mental 
head- 
quarters, 


Battalion 

head- 
quarters 


sorbent  cotton,  3  pounds.  For  direct 
transfer  process:  Autographic  paper,  17 
by  20  inches,  2  gross;  touche,  4  ounces; 
autographic  ink,  6  ounces.  For  etching 
and  retouching  plates:  Chromic,  phos- 
phoric, tannic  acids;  alum,  powdered,  2 
pounds;  asphaltum,  1  pound;  lavender  oil, 
1  ounce;  olive  oil,  ^  pint;  banana  oil,  8 
ounces;  beeswax;  dragon's  blood,  1  pound; 
gum  arabic,  25  pounds;  etching  ink,  1 
pound;  willow  charcoal,  1  pound;  etching 
slips;  resin  powder,  2  pounds;  tallow,  4 
ounces;  turpentine,  3  gallons.  For  print- 
ing and  drying:  Book  paper,  19  by  24 
inches,  5  reams;  blotting  paper,  19  by  24 
inches,  6  dozen;  cheesecloth,  white,  300 
yards;  hand-press  ink,  3  pounds;  turpen- 
tine. Miscellaneous:  Coal  oil,  10  gallons; 
thumb  tacks,  2  dozen;  varnish,  1  pint;  lan- 
tern and  oil-stove  wicks.  Blue-print  outfit: 
Blue-print  paper,  30-inch,  50  yards,  1  roll . 

Pioneer  outfit:  Screw  jacks 

Army-wagon    parts,    extra    (furnished    by    the 
Engineer  Department) : 

Blocks,  brake 

Bolts,  assorted,  sets,  king,  1  by  18  inches 
(1) ;  tire,  I  by  2f  inches  (1),  i  by  3  inches 
(5);  wagon,  i  by  1^  inches  (2),  ^  by  1| 
inches  (2),  A  by  2  inches  (1),  ^  by  2^ 
inches  (2),  |  by  3  inches  (2),  ^  by  11 

inches  (1),  i  by  4  inches  (4) 

Links,  open 

Nuts,  axle  (1  R.  H.  and  1  L.  H.) 

Rivets,  iron,  A  by  1^  inches  (6),  i  by  1^ 

inches  (4) 

Tongue,  reach,  doubletree,  single  tree  (of 

each) 

Army-wagon    accessories     (furnished    by    the 
Quartermaster  Corps) : 

Currycomb,  horse  brush,  whip,  and  bucket, 

G.  I.  (of  each) 

Grease,  axle,  pounds 

Nose  bags,  halter  with  strap  (of  each) 

Army-wagon  harness  parts,  extra  (furnished  by 
the  Quartermaster  Corps) : 

Buckles,  f ,  i,  1,  and  2  inch  (1  of  each) 

Clips,  trace 

Hames 

Rings,  f ,  1,  li,  and  2  inch  (1  of  each) 

Snaps,  1,  li,  and  2  inch  (1  of  each) 

Straps,  hame 


APPENDIX 


337 


LOADINGS  OF  HEADQUARTERS  TOOL  WAGONS,  ESCORT- 
WAGON  TYPE— Continued. 


Engineer  regiment. 


Regi- 
mental 
head- 
quarters 


Battalion 

head- 
quarters. 


Mounted 
engi- 
neers, 
battaUon 

head- 
quarters. 


Army-wagon  harness  accessories  and  supplies 
(furnished  by  the  Quartermaster  Corps) : 

Oil,  neat's-foot,  gallon 

Shoes,  mule,  JBitted  with  8  nails  each 

Soap,  harness,  pounds 

Sponge 

Wire,  stove,  spool 


16 
1 
1 
1 


Fig.  130.    Spring  Tool  Wagon. 


2.     LOADINGS  OF  HEADQUARTERS  TOOL  WAGONS— SPRING. 


Regi- 
mental 
head- 
quarters. 


Engineer  regiment. 


Battalion 

head- 
quarters. 


Mounted 
engi- 
neers, 
battalion 

head- 
quarters. 


Drafting  equipment:  . 

Board,  drawing,  31  by  42  inches,  with  trestle, 
with  the  following  equipment:  Office  set 
drawing  instruments;  proportional  divid- 
ers; steel  eraser,  erasing  shield;  map 
measure;  protractor,  8-inch,  G.  S.,  in  case; 
scale,  12-inch,  engineer;  scale,  12-inch, 
architect;  slab,  ink;  slide  rule,  16-inch; 
T  square,  42-inch;  triangle,  30°-60°,  10- 
inch;  triangle,  45°,  8-inch sets 

Lamps,  acetylene 

Pantograph 

Tent,  hospital,  regulation,  with  shield, 
complete 

Tubes,  tin 

Drafting  supplies: 

Books,  note  (3);  erasers,  rubber  (3);  ink, 
drawing,  bottles,  black  (2),  blue  (1),  br^)wn 
(1),  carmine  (1);  ink,  india,  1  stick;  paper, 
blotting,  3f  by  9 1  inches,  1  dozen;  cross- 
section,  20-inch,  5  yards;  drawing,  30-inch, 
30  yards;  wrapping,  40  by  48  inches,  sheets, 
2  dozen;  pens,  crow-quill,  d»zen,  with 
holder  (1),  mapping,  dozen,  with  holder 
(1);  pencils,  drawing,  H.  3H,  and  5H  (1 

338 


APPENDIX 


339 


LOADINGS  OF  HEADQUARTERS  TOOL  WAGONS— SPRING— 

Continued. 


Engineer  regiment. 


Regi- 
mental 
head- 
quarters 


Battalion 

head- 
quarters. 


dozen    each);    pencil   pointing    pad    (1), 
scratch  (2);  thumb  tacks,  3  dozen;  tracing 

cloth,  3(>;inch,  24  yards sets 

And  the  following  miscellaneous  supplies: 

Paste,  library 

Pins,  cones 

Tai>e,*  adhesive,  rolls 

Twine,  hemp,  2-ounce  ball 

Miscellaneous  equipment: 

Manuals,  Engineer  Field 

Padlocks,  brass 

Photographic  equipment:  Camera,  3 A  Graflex, 

with  folding  tripod  (Crown  No.  2) 

And  the  following  accessories:  Agate  trays  (4); 
bath  towels  (4) ;  canvas  buckets  (2) ;  chamois 
skin;  duplicating  tanks,  set;  film  tank;  grad- 
uate, 8-ounce;  photographer's  manual;  print- 
ing frames,  5  to  7  inches  (2) ;  rubber  blank- 
ets (2);  ruby  lamp;  shears,  8-inch;  spotting 
brush;  stirring  rods  (2);  thermometer..  .  .set 
Photographic  supplies: 

Developer,  M.  Q.  and  Pyro,  tank,  boxes  of 

each 

Films,  3A,  6  exposure 

Hypo  acid,  i-pound  boxes 

Paper,  developing,  3A  size,  gross 

And  the  following:  Absorbent  cotton;  alcohol, 
denatured,  1  pint;  cheesecloth,  white,  3  yards; 
film  albums,  3A  size  (2);  formaline,  1  pound, 
intensifier,  6  tubes;  opaque,  1  tube;  photo 
clips  (24) ;  photo  notebooks  (2) ;  jjotassium 
bromide,  tabloid,  6  tubes;  pushpins  (24); 
twine,   hemp,    1   ball;   wicks  for  ruby  lamp 

(6).... .set 

Reconnaissance  equipment: 

Chests,  sketching  outfit,  each  containing: 
pace  tally;  pencil  pocket;  rectangular  pro- 
tractor; service  clinometer;  sketching 
board,   with  alidade  and  folding  tripod; 

timing  pad  holder 

And  the  following  additional  equipment — • 

Barometers,  aneroid,  with  cases 

Clinometers,  service,  with  case 

Compasses,  box  (2),  prismatic  with  case 

(2),  watch  (6) 

Odometers,  with  cases 

Pace  tallies 

Protractor,  rectangular 

Reconnaissance  supplies: 

Books,  field  note 

Celluloid,  sheets 


15 

48 

48 

3 


2 
4 

10 
2 
4 
1 

16 
36 


340 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


LOADINGS  OF  HEADQUARTERS  TOOL  WAGONS— SPRING— 
Continued. 


Engineer  regiment. 

Mounted 
engi- 

•         0 

Regi- 
mental 
head- 
quarters. 

Battalion 

head- 
quarters. 

neers, 
battalion 

head- 
quarters. 

Pads,  timing 

Paper,  sketching,  sheets,  gross 

Pencils,  drawing,  H  (42),  blue  (14),  red  (14), 

green  (14) 

Protectors,  pencil-point 

18 

u 

84 

14 

6 

6 
1 
2 
1 
1 
4 
1 
3 
2 
2 

4 

6 

30 

2 

1 
1 
3 
2 
2 
3 
2 
3 
1 
1 

1 
1 
4 

4 
2 
3 

•  V 

18 

u 

84 
14 

Tape,  adhesive,  rolls 

Surveying  equipment: 

Boards,  stadia 

Field  glasses,  with  case 

6 

2 
1 

Levels,  engineer's,  and  tripods 

1 

Plane  tables,  complete,  and  tripods 

Repair  kit  for  steel  tapes 

Rods,  level,  Philadelphia 

Slide  rule,  16-inch,  with  case 



1 
2 

Stadia  computer 

1 

Tapes,  steel,  100-foot 

1 

Transits  and  tripods 

1 

Surveying  supplies: 

Books,  level 

Books,  transit 

Cloth,  signal,  red  and  white,  yards  (of  each)  . 
Paper,  plane  table,  sheets,  dozens 

2 

2 

15 

Spring  tool-wagon  parts,  extra  (furnished  by  the 
Engineer  Department) : 

Bolts,  one  each  except  where  shown — ^-inch 
carriage,  Ih  If.  2^,  2f  inch;  ^-inch  car- 
riage,  1^  inch  (2),  2^  inch;    ^-inch  car- 
riage, 2,  2i  3  inch  (2);  f-inch  carriage,  3^ 
4,  5i,  6  inch;  king,  |  by  12  inches;  machine, 
1^  by  2i  inches;  j-inch  tire,  2  inch  (2),  2i 
inch  (4);  ^-inch  tire,  If,  2i  inch;  f-inch 
tire,  4^,  5^,  6  inch set 

Brake,  block 

Links,  open 

Nuts,  axle  (1  each  R.  H.  and  L.  H.) 

Rivets,  iron,  J  by  1 J  inches 

1 
1 
3 
2 
2 

Rivets,  iron  i  by  22  inches.  . 

3 

Screws,  wood,  flathead,  No.  12,  1^  inch.  .  .  . 
Screws,  rivet  head,  No.  9,  IJ  inch      

2 
3 

Singletree 

Tongue 

Spring  tool-wagon  accessories  (furnished  by  the 
Quartermaster  Corps) : 
Bucket,    G.    I.,    currycomb,    horse    brush, 

monkey  wrench,  and  whip  (of  each) 

Grease,  axle,  pounds 

Halter,  with  strap,  and  nose  bags 

Harness  parts,  extra  (furnished  by  the  Quarter- 
master Corps) : 
Buckles,  f,  1,  1,  and  li  inch 

1 

1 

1 

1 
4 

4 

Hames 

Hame  straps 

2 
3 

APPENDIX 


341 


LOADINGS  OF  HEADQUARTERS  TOOL  WAGONS— SPRING- 

Continued. 


Engineer  regiment 


Regi- 
mental 

head- 
quarters. 


Battalion 

head- 
quarters. 


Mounted 
engi- 
neers, 
battalion 

head- 
quarters. 


Rings,  f ,  1,  1|,  and  2  inch 

Snaps,  1,  li,  and  1^  inch 

Harness  accessories  (furnished  by  the  Quarter- 
master Corps) : 

Oil,  neat's  foot,  gallons 

Soap,  harness,  pounds 

Sponge 

Wire,  stove,  spool 

Additional  supplies  (furnished  by  the  Quarter- 
master Corps):  Shoes,  mule,  fitted,  with  8 
nails  each 


16 


Fig.  131.    Company  Tool  Wagon. 


3.     LOADINGS  OF  COMPANY  TOOL  WAGONS. 


Engineer 
com- 
pany, 
regi- 
mental 
(one-half 
of  quan- 
tities 
given 
below 
carried 
on  each 
wagon) . 


Com- 
pany of 
Mounted 
Engineers 
(one 
wagon 
only). 


Carpenter  equipment:  Chest,  carpenter's,  containing  au- 
gers, ship,  handled  (3);  scratch  awl;  ax,  handled,  32-inch 
(with  extra  handle) ;  ratchet  brace,  and  bits  (2  auger,  1 
expansion,  2  screw-driver);  chisels,  framing,  handled  (3), 
(one  extra  handle) ;  cold  chisel;  wing  dividers;  draw  knife; 
files,  saw,  taper  (3) ;  hammer,  claw  (with  extra  handle) ; 
ratchets  (5);  24-inch  carpenter's  level;  mallet;  oiler,  | 
pint;  oilstone;  jack-plane;  pliers;  plumb  bob;  rules,  2-foot 
(4);  saws,  hand  [rip  (1),  crosscut  (2),  compass  (1)];  saw 
set;  screw  driver;  squares,  steel,  carpenter's  (1),  try  (1); 
tape,  metallic,  50-foot;  T  bevel,  and  wrenches,  monkey, 

12-inch sets 

Carpenter's  supplies: 

Chalk,  carpenter's,  pound 

Chalk  Unes,  40-foot 

Pencils,  carpenter's,  dozen .  ,     

Demolition  equipment: 

Augers,  earth,  handled,  and  ship,  handled,  If-inch; 
bars,  pinch,  large,  and  wood,  tamping;  cold  chisel; 
single  bit  drills,  long  and  short;  miner's  spoon,  long 
(one  of  each) set 

342 


APPENDIX  343 

LOADINGS  OF  COMPANY  TOOL  WAGONS— Continued. 


Engineer 

com- 

pany, 

regi- 

Com- 

mental 

pany  of 

(one-half 

Mounted 

of  quan- 

Engineers 

tities 

(one 

. 

given 

wagon 

below 

only) . 

carried 

on  each 

wagon) . 

Box,  cap ' 

2 

1 

Box   match                                     

2 
2 
2 

1 

1 

Crimpers                                                  

1 

Hammers,  sledge,  8-pound 

4 

2 

Magneto  exploders 

Pick  mattocks,  E.  D.  pattern,  "intrenching,"  handled. 

2 

1 

4 

2 

Shovels,  E.  D.  pattern,  "intrenchmg" 

8 

4 

Spoons,  miner's,  long 

2 

1 

Wire,  firing,  double-lead  No.  14,  on  reel,  feet 

2,000 

1,000 

Demolition  supplies: 

Caps,  detonating 

100 

50 

Explosive,  pounds 

Fuse,  Bickford,  feet 

200 

100 

200 
200 

100 

Fuse,  instantaneous,  feet 

100 

Fuses,  electric 

200 

1 

100 

Matches,  safety,  boxes,  dozen 

h 

Tape,  insulating,  rolls 

2 

1 

Twine,  hemp,  2-ounce  balls 

2 

1 

Drafting  equipment: 

Boards,  drawing,  23  by  31  inches  (with  trestles) 

2 

1 

And  the  following  equipment:     Field  drawmg  instru- 

ments (set);  steel  eraser;  erasing  shield;  map  meas- 

ure; protractors,  G.  S.,  semicircular,  6-inch;  scales, 

12-inch;  architect's  (1)  and  engineer's  (1);  triangles. 

30°-60°  and  45°,  and  T  squares,  24-inch set 

2 

1 

Lamp   acetylene 

2 

1 

Tubes,  tin 

6 

3 

Drafting  supplies: 

Books,  note 

6 
40 

3 

Carbide,  in  10-pound  cans,  pounds 

20 

Cloth,  tracing,  30-inch,  roll,  yards 

48 

24 

Erasers,  rubber,  pencil  (2),  ink  (1) 

6 

3 

Ink,  drawing,  black  (2),  blue  (1),  carmine  (1),  bottles.  . 

8 

4 

Ink,  india,  stick 

2 

1 

Pencil-pointing  pad,  li  by  4  inches;  scratch  pad,  6  by  9 

inches  (2) ;  blottmg  paper,  3|  by  9|  mches,  dozen  (1) ; 

pins;   adhesive  tape    (2   rolls)    and  twine    (2-ounce 
ball)                           set 

2 

288 

1 

Drawing  paper,  22  by  30  inches,  sheets 

Pencils,  H  and  3H  (of  each) .- 

144 

12 

6 

Pens,  crow-quill  and  mapping,  with  holder  (of  each) .  .  . 

24 

12 

Thumb  tacks 

24 

12 

Hectograph  equipment: 

Hectographs   clay,  20  by  24  inches 

2 

1 

Levelers,  hectograph 

2 

1 

Sponges 

2 

1 

344  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE  ENGINEER 

LOADINGS  OF  COMPANY  TOOL  WAGONS— Continued. 


Engineer 
com- 

pany, 
regi- 
mental 
(one-half 
of  quan- 
tities 
given 
below 
carried 
on  each 
wagon) . 

Com- 
pany of 
Mounted 
Engineers 
(one 
wagon 
only) . 

Hectograph  supplies: 

Ink,  green  (1),  red  (1),  violet  (2),  bottles 

Paper,  book,  19  by  24  inches,  quires 

Miscellaneous  equipment: 

Bags  for  nails,  two  50-pound,  one  100-pound 

Buckets,  galvanized-iron 

8 
10 

6 
6 
2 
2 

22 
18 
26 
2 
12 
2 
2 

20 
10 
36 

400 
10 

2 
20 

6 
36 
50 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

16 

24 

24 

2 

4 
5 

3 
3 

Cans,  galvanized-iron,  5-gallon 

Carborundum  wheels 

1 
1 

Handles,  ship-auger  (1),  sledge  (1),  hatchet  (3),  pick- 
mattock  (6) 

11 

Lanterns,  dark  (3),  Dietz  (6) 

9 

Manuals,  Engineer  Field  (12),  Ponton  (1) 

13 

Marlinspikes 

1 

Padlocks,  brass 

Stamps,  steel,  sets 

Stencils,  sets 

6 

1 
1 

Miscellaneous  supplies: 

Canvas,  10-ounce,  width  36  inches,  yards 

Grease,  axle,  pounds 

Marline,  pounds 

Nails,  60-penny  (100  pounds),  30-penny  (50  pounds), 
16-penny  (50  pounds) 

10 
5 
18 

200 

Oil,  signal,  gallons 

5 

Oil,  machine,  quarts 

Staples,  pounds 

Screws,  assorted,  gross 

Wicks,  extra,  dark  lantern  (6),  Dietz  (12) 

1 
10 
3 

18 

Wire,  B.  «&;  S.  No.  16,  pounds 

Photographic  equipment: 
Camera,  3A  kodak 

25 

Tripod,  metal,  folding 

And  the  following  accessories:  Rubber  blankets  (2); 
canvas  buckets  (2);  bulb,  rubber;  printing  frames, 
5  by  7  inches  (2);  graduate,  8  ounces;  ruby  lamp; 
Photographer's  Manual;  stirring  rods  (2);  shears  8 
inches;    film    tank,    3§-inch;    thermometer;    towels, 

bath  (4)  and  agate  trays  (4) set 

Photographic  supplies: 

Albums  for  3 A  films,  size  3  J  by  5 J  inches 

Books,  photo  note .        .             

Developer,  M.  Q.  and  Pyro,  8  boxes  each,  boxes 

Films,  3 A  size,  6  exposures,  size  3  J  by  5  ^  inches 

Hypo  acid,  in  i-pound  boxes,  boxes 

Paper,  3 A  developing,  size  3i  by  5 J  inches  (1  gross), 

printing  out  (1  gross),  gross 

And  the  following  articles:     Potassium  bicarbonate,  1 

pound;  twine  ball  (2  ounces);  cheesecloth,  white,  3 

16 
24 
24 

APPENDIX  345 

LOADINGS  OF  COMPANY  TOOL  WAGONS— Continued. 


Engineer 

com- 

pany, 

regi- 

Com- 

mental 

pany  of 

(one-half 

Mounted 

of  quan- 

Engineers 

tities 

(one 

given 

wagon 

below 

only) . 

carried 

on  each 

wagon) . 

yards;  photo  clips  (12);  formalin,  1  pound;  intensi- 
fier,   tube    (1);   pushpins    (12);   potassium  bromide 
tabloid  tube  (1);  reducer  tube  (1)  and  wicks,  ruby 

lamp  (6) set 

1 

1 

Pioneer  equipment: 

Adzes,  handled,  32-inch 

4 

26 

2 

2 

Axes,  handled,  36-inch 

13 

Bars,  pinch,  large 

1 

Blocks,  8-inch,  double;  8-inch,  single;  8-inch,  snatch; 

and  8-inch,  triple 

8 

4 

Bolts,  clippers 

6 
2 

3 

Climbers,  lineman's,  set 

1 

Comealongs 

4 

2 

Files,  crosscut  saw 

6 

4 

3 

Hammers,  sledge,  handled,  8-pound 

2 

Handles,  extra,  adz,  32-inch;  ax,  36-inch;  pick,  rail- 

road, 36-inch;  saw,  crosscut,  1-man;  and  saw,  cross- 

cut, 2-man 

14 

6 

18 

7 

Hatchets 

3 

Knives,  Gabion 

9 

Machetes,  with  sheaths 

36 
4 

4 

18 

Mauls,  wood 

2 

Peevies,  handled 

2 

Picks,  railroad,  handled 

6 

3 

Pick  mattocks: 

E.  D.  pattern,  "Intrenching,"  handled 

30 

15 

Large,  handled 

6 

3 

PUers,  side-cutting 

18 

9 

Points,  pike  and  hook 

4 
2 

2 

Posthole  diggers 

1 

Rope,  manila,  1-inch  diameter feet 

500 

250 

Saw,  crosscut,  1-man                                               

2 
4 
2 

1 

Saw,  crosscut,  2-man 

2 

Saw,  hack  (with  6  blades) 

1 

Saw  tools 

2 
60 

1 

Shovels,  E.  D.  pattern,  "intrenching" 

30 

Shovels,  long-handled 

12 

6 

Tapes,  metalhc,  50-foot 

4 

2 

Wedges,  steel,  5-pound 

4 

2 

Wrenches,  monkey,  18-inch 

2 

1 

Wrenches,  Stillson,  18-inch 

2 

1 

Pioneer  supplies: 

Bolts,  drift,  |-inch  (40),  i-inch  (40) 

160 

80 

Lashings,  manila,  |-inch  diameter,  50-foot  (12),  ^-inch 

diameter,  18-foot  (25) ...          

74 

37 

Sandbags,  with  binders 

500 

250 

Tape,  tracing,  feet 

3,000 

1,500 

346  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

LOADINGS  OF  COMPANY  TOOL  WAGONS--Continu3d. 


Engineer 
com- 
pany, 
regi- 
mental 
(one-half 
of  quan- 
tities 
given 
below 
carried 
on  each 
wagon) . 

Com- 
pany of 
Mounted 
Engineers 
(one 
wagon 
only). 

Reconnaissance  equipment: 

Chests,   sketching   outfit,    each   containing   sketching 
board,  with  alidade,  and  folding  tripod;  service  cli- 
nometer; timing  pad  holder;  pencil  pocket;  rectangu- 
lar protractor  and  pace  tally 

The  following  additional  equipment — 

Barometer,  aneroid,  with  cases 

6 

4 
8 
20 
2 
2 
8 
2 
2 

32 
72 
28 
36 
3 
168 
28 
12 

2 
6 
4 
2 
20 
2 

8 
2 
8 
2 

8 
4 
4 
8 
6 
6 

3 
2 

Clinometer,  service,  with  cases 

4 

Compasses,  box  (2),  prismatic,  with  cases  (2),  watch  (6) 
Field  glasses,  with  cases 

10 
1 

Odometers,  with  cases 

1 

Pace  tallies 

4 

Protractors,  rectangular 

Sextants,  pocket 

Reconnaissance  supplies: 

Books,  note,  field 

Celluloid  sheets 

1 
1 

16 
36 

Erasers,  rubber,  pencil 

Pads,  timing 

14 

18 

Paper,  sketching,  sheets,  gross 

Pencils,  blue  (14),  drawing,  H  (42),  green  (14),  red  (14) 
Protectors,  pencil-point 

u 

84 
14 

Tape,  adhesive,  rolls 

Company  tool  wagon  parts,  extra  (furnished  by  the  Engi- 
neer Department) : 
Bolts,  king,  1  by  18  inches  (1);  tire,  1  by  2f  inches  (1), 
and  i  by  3  inches  (5) ;  square  head,  |  by  2  J  inches  (2) ; 
carriage,  f  and  i  by  4  inches  (2),  and  i  by  2  and  31 

inches  (4);  carriage,  A  by  3  J  inches  (2) set 

Links,  open 

6 

1 
3 

Nuts,  axle  (one  R.  H.  and  one  L.  H.) 

Reach,  tongue   singletree,  extra  (of  each) 

2 
1 

Rivets,  iron,  A  by  2f  inches  (6)  and  i  by  2}  inches  (4) . 

Wrenches,  axle 

Company  tool  wagon  accessories  (furnished  by  the  Quar- 
termaster Corps) : 

Nose  bags,  halters,  and  straps  (of  each) 

Currycomb  and  horse  brush  (of  each) 

10 

1 

4 
1 

Grease,  axle,  pounds 

Whips                    .                                           

4 

1 

Harness  parts,  extra  (furnished  by  the  Quartermaster  Corps) : 
Buckles,  4,  1,  1,  and  2  inch 

4 

Clips,  trace 

2 

Hames 

2 

Rings,  J,  1,  IJ   and  2  inch                               

4 

Snaps,  1 ,  1  i,  and  2  inch 

3 

Straps,  hame 

3 

APPENDIX  347 

.  LOADINGS  OF  COMPANY  TOOL  WAGONS— Continued. 


Engineer 

com- 

pany. 

regi- 

Com- 

mental 

pany  of 

(one-half 

Mounted 

of  quan- 

Engineers 

tities 

(one 

given 

wagon 

below 

only). 

carried 

on  each 

wagon). 

Harness  accessories  (furnished  by  the  Quartermaster  Corps) : 

Oil,  neat's-foot,  gallons 

1 

h 

Soap,  harness,  pounds 

2 

1 

Sponges 

2 

1 

Wire,  stove,  spool 

Additional    supplies    (furnished    by    the    Quartermaster 
Corps) :  Mule  shoes,  fitted,  and  10  nails 

2 

1 

32 

16 

Pig.  132.    Company  Tool  Wagon,  Open,  Showing  Equipment. 


348  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

4.     PACK  OUTFITS. 


Box  1-A 


Box  1-B. 


PACK    NO.    1,    EQUIPMENT. 

Carpenters,  farriers,  and  saddlers: 

Bag,  nail,  10-pound 

Bag,  for  small  articles 

Bar,  pinch,  small 

Box,  pack  No.  1 

Brace  and  bits  (7  auger  and  1  screw  driver) ,  hand  saws, 

C.  C.  (2) set 

Carpenter's  bag;  framing  chisels  (3) ;  claw  hammers  (2) ; 

hatchets  (4);  50-foot  metallic  tape;  monkey  wrench; 

ship  augers,  j^-inch,  handled  (2) ;  side-cutting  pliers 

(2) ;  and  steel  square set 

Hammer,  sledge,  8-pound 

Farrier's  hammer,  shoe  knife  (in  case) ,  nippers,  pincers, 

shoeing  rasp,  16-inch,  and  flat  bastard  file,  12-inch  set. 

Revolving  punch,  rivet  set,  and  stitching  awl set 

Rolls,  canvas,  for  tools 

PACK    NO.    1,    SUPPLIES. 

Carpenter; 

Bolts,  drift,  Hnch 

Carpenter  pencils (6),  chalk,  j-pound,  chalk  lines  (2),  set 
Nails,  60-penny  (10  pounds),  16-penny  (10  pounds), 

pounds 

Farrier: 

Beeswax  (2  ounces),  harness  needles  (2  papers),  harness 
rivets,  assorted  (1  pound),  harness  thread  (2-ounce 

ball) set 

Nails,  horseshoe,  pounds 

Shoes,  mule,  fitted 


PACKS    NOS.    2    AND   3,    EQUIPMENT. 

Demolition: 

Canvas  bucket;  cold  chisel;  pinch  bar,  small  (of  each) . . 
Clasp  knife;  crimper;  cap  box;  match  box  (of  each) .... 
Pick  mattock,  mining;  ship  auger,   l|-inch,  handled 

(of  each) 

Pliers,  side-cutting . 

Shovels,   mining;   sledge   (8  pounds);  single-bit  drill, 

small;  miner's  spoon  (of  each) 

Roll,  canvas,  for  tools 


20 
1 


Boxes 
2-A  and 
3- A  each 
contain- 


Boxes 
2-B  and 
3-B  each 
contain — 


PACKS    NOS.    2    AND    3,    SUPPLIES. 

Demolition: 

Caps,  detonating 

Cord,  detonating  (2  spools),  and  12  unions set 

Explosive,  pounds • 

Fuse,  Bickford,  feet 

Fuse  lighters,  Bickford 

Lashings,  manila,  ^-inch,  18  feet 

Matches,  safety,  boxes 

Twine,  hemp,  2-ounce  ball 

Wire,  copper.  No.  30,  J-pound  spool 


50 
1 

45 
100 

30 
1 
6 
1 
1 


50 
1 

45 
100 

30 
1 
6 
1 
1 


APPENDIX 
PACK  OUTFITS— Continued. 


349 


Box  4-A. 

Box  4-B. 

PACK    NO.    4,    EQUIPMENT. 

Pioneer  equipment: 

Axes,  handled,  36-inch 

Boxes,  pack,  No.  4 

Pick  mattocks,  handled  \  T7.   -r. xx^,     ^-   • 

Shovels j^-^'  pattern,  mming 

3 

{  i 

3 

1 

5 

10 

Box  5-A. 

Box  5-B. 

PACK    NO.    5,    EQUIPMENT. 

Pioneer  equipment: 

Blocks— 6-inch,  double;  6-inch,  single;  6-inch,  snatch. set 

Boxes,  pack  No.  5 

Hatchets 

3 

1 

5' 

1 
1 
2 

3 

1 
2 

Machetes,  with  sheaths  ^ 

5 

Rope,  manila,  f-inch  diameter,  200-fbot  coils 

Saws,  folding,  with  cases , 

1 
1 

Saws,  crosscut,  hand,  20-inch 

APPENDIX  III 

ORGANIZATION  OF  ENGINEER  TROOPS 

From  Tables  of  Organization^ 

U.  S.  Armyj 

1917 


CORRECTION  TO  TABLES  OF  ORGANIZATION 


By  the  terms  of  General  Order  No.  85,  War  Depart- 
ment, July  9,  1917,  the  authorized  strength  of  an 
engineer  regiment  was  increased  by  36  enlisted  men, 
to  be  assigned  to  the  headquarters  detachment  as 
follows: 


First  sergeant 1 

Mess  sergeant 1 

Supply  sergeant 1 

Stable  sergeant 1 

Corporals 4 

Horseshoers .• 2 

Saddler 1 

Cook 1 

Privates,  first  class. '. 6 

Privates 18 

Total 36 


This  makes  a  total  regimental  headquarters  detach- 
ment of  76  enlisted  men,  and  increases  the  maximum 
strength  of  an  engineer  regiment  to  1097  enlisted  and 
37  officers,  a  total  of  1134. 


352 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


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ordinarily    with    the 
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APPENDIX 


353 


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APPENDIX 


355 


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APPENDIX 


357 


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APPENDIX 


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APPENDIX 


361 


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StP    14  1942 

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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


